# LP, the Larch Prover

LP is an interactive theorem proving system for multisorted first-order logic. It is currently used at MIT and elsewhere to reason about designs for circuits, concurrent algorithms, hardware, and software. Unlike most theorem provers, which attempt to find proofs automatically for correctly stated conjectures, LP is intended to assist users in finding and correcting flaws in conjectures---the predominant activity in the early stages of the design process.

LP works efficiently on large problems, has many important user amenities, and can be used by relatively naive users. It was developed by Stephen J. Garland and John V. Guttag at the MIT Laboratory for Computer Science. It is currently maintained by Stephen J. Garland.

For a general introduction to LP, see the following topics.

The entire set of pages describing LP is also available as a single, printable document.

# Introduction

LP is an interactive theorem proving system for multisorted first-order logic. It is currently used at MIT and elsewhere to reason about designs for circuits, concurrent algorithms, hardware, and software. Unlike most theorem provers, which attempt to find proofs automatically for correctly stated conjectures, LP is intended to assist users in finding and correcting flaws in conjectures---the predominant activity in the early stages of the design process.

LP works efficiently on large problems, has many important user amenities, and can be used by relatively naive users. It was developed by Stephen J. Garland and John V. Guttag at the MIT Laboratory for Computer Science. It is currently maintained by Stephen J. Garland.

For a general introduction to LP, see the following topics.

The entire set of pages describing LP is also available as a single, printable document.

# Design philosophy

The philosophy behind LP is different from that underlying most theorem provers. Its design is based on the observation that initial attempts to state interesting conjectures correctly, and then prove them, hardly ever succeed on the first try. Sometimes the conjecture is wrong. Sometimes the formalization is incorrect or incomplete. Sometimes the proof strategy is flawed or not detailed enough. As a result, LP is designed to assist in reasoning by carrying out routine (and possibly lengthy) steps in a proof automatically and by providing useful information about why proofs fail, if and when they do.

Because conjectures are often flawed, LP is not designed to find difficult proofs automatically. For example, LP does not use heuristics to formulate additional conjectures that might be useful in a proof. Instead, LP makes it easy for users to employ standard techniques such as simplification and proofs by cases, induction, and contradiction, either to construct proofs or to understand why they have failed.

LP also provides support for rechecking proofs following changes in axioms, conjectures, or proof strategies. This support assists users in regression testing during proof construction: when users discover they must change a formalization in order to establish some conjecture, regression testing ensures that the change does not invalidate previously constructed proofs. This support also promotes proof re-use: users can edit old proofs to prove new conjectures, and LP will check that the progress of the proof stays in sync'' with the users' intentions.

# Some sample proofs

We illustrate how to use LP by presenting some sample proofs along with explanatory comments. The proofs show how to derive some basic facts about finite sets from a simple axiomatization.

# Sample proofs: getting started

To invoke LP, type lp at the Unix command prompt. LP will respond with the following message:
Welcome to LP (the Larch Prover), Release 3.1 (94/12/30).
Copyright (C) 1994, S. J. Garland and J. V. Guttag
Type help lp' (followed by a carriage return) for help.

LP1:

LP is a command-driven system. The last line of LP's welcoming message, LP1:, is a prompt for the first command. LP prompts users to enter subsequent commands with LP2:, LP3:, ...

You can type input directly in response to LP's prompts, or you can create a file of LP commands (e.g., set1.lp) and then use LP's execute command to cause LP to execute the commands in that file as if you had typed them directly. Here's the start of a session in which commands are executed from the file set1.lp:

LP1: execute set1

LP1.1: % Some simple theorems about finite sets

LP1.2:

The first command, execute set1, was typed by the user. The second was obtained from the file set1.lp. This command is a comment: LP ignores all input following a percent sign. The prompts LP1.1: and LP1.2: indicate that LP is taking input from the file being executed as a result of the command entered in response to the prompt LP1:.

# Sample proof: declarations

The first three commands in set1.lp declare symbols for use in axiomatizing the properties of sets of elements.
declare sorts E, S
declare variables e, e1, e2: E, x, y, z: S
declare operators
{}:                   -> S
{__}:            E    -> S
insert:          E, S -> S
__ \union __:    S, S -> S
__ \in __:       E, S -> Bool
__ \subseteq __: S, S -> Bool
..


The first declare command introduces names for two sorts, E and S. LP predefines the boolean sort Bool.

The second command introduces variables ranging over E and S. These variables will be used when stating axioms and conjectures.

The third command introduces symbols for the operators whose properties we will axiomatize. This command uses LP's multi-line input convention: if the arguments for a command do not fit on the line containing the command, they can be given on subsequent lines. Two periods (..) mark the end of the command.

The declaration for each operator specifies sorts for the operator's arguments and the sort of its result. Operators like {} with no arguments are constants. Operators like insert are used in functional notations like insert(e, x). The placeholders in operators like {__} and __\in__ indicate where their arguments belong in notations like {e} and e \in x.

# Sample proof: axioms for finite sets

The next several commands in set1.lp axiomatize the properties of finite sets of elements.
set name setAxioms
assert
sort S generated by {}, insert;
{e} = insert(e, {});
~(e \in {});
e \in insert(e1, x) <=> e = e1 \/ e \in x;
{} \subseteq x;
insert(e, x) \subseteq y <=> e \in y /\ x \subseteq y;
e \in (x \union y) <=> e \in x \/ e \in y
..
set name extensionality
assert \A e (e \in x <=> e \in y) => x = y

The set command directs LP to assign the names setAxioms.1, setAxioms.2, ... to the axioms introduced by the subsequent assert commands. When multiple axioms are asserted in a single command, they are separated by semicolons.

The axioms are formulated using declared symbols (for sorts, variables, and operators) together with logical symbols for equality (=), negation (~), conjunction (/\), disjunction (\/), implication (=>), logical equivalence (<=>), and universal quantification (\A). LP also provides a symbol for existential quantification (\E). LP uses a limited amount of \llink{precedence} when parsing formulas: for example, the logical operator <=> binds less tightly than the other logical operators, which bind less tightly than the equality operator, which bind less tightly than declared operators like \in and \union.

# Sample proofs: useful kinds of axioms

The axioms in set1.lp fall into several categories:

Induction rules
The first axiom, sort Set generated by {}, insert, asserts that all elements of sort S can be obtained by finitely many applications of insert to {}. It provides the basis for definitions and proofs by induction.

Explicit definitions
The second axiom, {e} = insert(e, {}), is a single formula that defines the operator {__} (as a constructor for a singleton set).

Inductive definitions
The next two pairs of axioms provide induction definitions of the membership operator \in and the subset operator \subseteq. Inductive definitions generally consist of one formula per generator.

Implicit definitions
The final formula, e \in (x \union y) <=> e \in x \/ e \in y, in the first assert command, together with the other axioms, completely constrains the interpretation of the \union operator.

Constraining properties
The second assert command formalizes the principle of extensionality, which asserts that any two sets with exactly the same elements must be the same set.

# Sample proofs: sample conjectures

We will illustrate LP's proof mechanisms by proving the following sample conjectures:
set name setTheorems
prove e \in {e}
prove \E x \A e (e \in x <=> e = e1 \/ e = e2)
prove x \union {} = x
prove x \union insert(e, y) = insert(e, x \union y)
prove ac \union
prove e \in x /\ x \subseteq y => e \in y
prove x \subseteq y /\ y \subseteq x => x = y
prove (x \union y) \subseteq z <=> x \subseteq z /\ y \subseteq z
prove sort S generated by {}, {__}, \union
prove x \subseteq (x \union y)
prove x \subseteq x

Except for the fourth, the sample conjectures are like the sample axioms: they are either formulas or induction rules. The fourth, ac \union, is an abbreviation for the conjunction of the associative and commutative laws for the \union operator. It provides LP with useful operational information. For example, it allows LP to conclude that {} \union x is the same set as x \union {}; hence the third conjecture shows that both of these sets are the same as x.

The order in which we have stated these conjectures is not completely arbitrary. As we shall see, some of them are used to prove conjectures appearing later in the list.

# Sample proofs: two easy theorems

The proof of the first theorem in set1.lp is straightforward.
set name setTheorems
prove e \in {e}
qed

The prove command directs LP to initiate the proof of a conjecture, and the qed command directs LP to confirm that its proof is complete. LP proves this conjecture automatically by using the user-supplied axioms as rewrite rules. When using a formula as a rewrite rule, either LP rewrites terms matching the entire formula to true or, when the principal connective of the formula is = (equals) or <=> (if and only if), LP rewrites terms matching the left side of the formula to terms matching the right. Occasionally LP will reverse the order of terms in an equality to ensure that the resulting set of rewrite rules does not produce nonterminating (i.e., infinite) rewriting sequences. Here's how LP proves the first conjecture:
e \in {e} ~> e \in insert(e, {})    by setAxioms.2
~> e = e \/ e \in {}      by setAxioms.4
~> true \/ e \in {}       by a hardwired axiom for =
~> true                   by a hardwired axiom for \/

Most proofs require user guidance. For example, to prove that for any two elements e1 and e2, there is a set that contains exactly these two elements, the user must provide a witness'' for the existential quantifier in the second conjecture:
prove \E x \A e (e \in x <=> e = e1 \/ e = e2)
resume by specializing x to insert(e2, {e1})
qed

Users can specify a proof method for a conjecture either as part of the prove command or in a separate resume command, which continues the proof of the conjecture.

# Sample proofs: three theorems about union

The next three theorems in set1.lp follow from the principle of extensionality.
prove x \union {} = x
instantiate y by x \union {} in extensionality
qed

The instantiate command directs LP to form the substitution instance
\A e (e \in x <=> e \in x \union {}) => x = x \union {}

of the fact name extensionality. LP rewrites this formula automatically to
\A e (e \in x <=> e \in x \/ e \in {}) => x = x \union {}

using the definition of \union, then to
\A e (e \in x <=> e \in x \/ false) => x = x \union {}

using the definition of \in, and then successively to
\A e (e \in x <=> e \in x) => x = x \union {}
\A e (true) => x = x \union {}
true => x = x \union {}
x = x \union {}

using LP's hardwired axioms. LP orients this final simplification into the rewrite rule x \union {} -> x, which it uses to simplify the conjecture to true.

Two other theorems about union can also be proved by instantiating the extensionality axiom. Both proofs are left as exercises to the reader.

prove x \union insert(e, y) = insert(e, x \union y)
prove ac \union


# Sample proofs: alternative proofs of theorems about union

Explicit instantiation is not the only way to prove the three conjectures about union in set1.lp. Here's another technique:
prove x \union {} = x by contradiction
critical-pairs *Hyp with extensionality
qed

The prove command directs LP to begin an attempt to prove the conjecture by contradiction. LP does this by adding the negation, ~(xc \union {} = xc), of the conjecture as a hypothesis to its logical system. It replaces the variable x in the conjecture by the constant xc, because the negation of a conjecture about all sets x is a statement about some particular set xc. LP also orients this new hypothesis into a rewrite rule, xc \union {} = xc -> false.

The critical-pairs command directs LP to use the rewrite rule obtained from this new hypothesis, whose name setTheoremsContraHyp.1 matches the pattern *Hyp, together with that obtained from the fact whose name matches extensionality, to enlarge its set of rewrite rules. LP does this by finding a term that can be rewritten in two different ways by the two rewrite rules and then asserting that these two terms must be equal. LP finds such a term by unifying the left side of one rewrite rule with a subterm of the left side of the other. Here, LP unifies the left side of the hypothesized rewrite rule with a subterm of the extensionality principle (by mapping x to xc \union {} and y to xc) to obtain the formula

\A e (e \in (xc \union {}) <=> e \in xc) => xc \union {} = xc

The extensionality axiom rewrites this formula to true, whereas the hypothesized rewrite rule rewrites it to
\A e (e \in (xc \union {}) <=> e \in xc) => false

Hence these two results must be equivalent:
\A e (e \in (xc \union {}) <=> e \in xc) => false <=> true

As in our first proof of the conjecture, this formula rewrites to true => false <=> true, which rewrites to false using LP's hardwired axioms. This inconsistency finishes the proof by contradiction.

The file set1.lp uses this technique to prove the second and third theorems about union.

# Sample proofs: three theorems about subset

The next three theorems in set1.lp establish some basic properties of the subset relation. They illustrate how LP's proof techniques combine to establish conjectures. The user types a few commands to select proof strategies (e.g., a proof by induction or a proof by cases). LP generates subgoals appropriate for the selected strategies and fills in most of the details automatically. Sometimes the user needs to tell LP to work a little harder near the end of a proof to fill in the remaining details.
set proof-methods normalization, =>
prove e \in x /\ x \subseteq y => e \in y by induction on x
resume by case ec = e1c
complete
qed

The set command directs LP to use an automatic proof technique whenever the user does not specify one explicitly. Here, it directs LP to try to prove conjectures first by rewriting, and then to assume the hypotheses of implications and try again. This setting for proof-methods is a good alternative to the standard setting, which consists of normalization alone.

## A proof by induction

The user directs LP to begin the proof of the conjecture by induction on the variable x instead of by using one of the automatic proof methods. LP creates two subgoals for the proof by induction, a basis subgoal for the generator {} of sort S and an induction subgoal for the generator insert; it also formulates an induction hypothesis that can be used in the proof of the induction subgoal.
Creating subgoals for proof by structural induction on x'
Basis subgoal:
Subgoal 1: e \in {} /\ {} \subseteq y => e \in y
Induction constant: xc
Induction hypothesis:
setTheoremsInductHyp.1: e \in xc /\ xc \subseteq y => e \in y
Induction subgoal:
Subgoal 2: e \in insert(e1, xc) /\ insert(e1, xc) \subseteq y => e \in y

LP proves the basis subgoal automatically by rewriting the term e \in {} to false, but it needs further guidance to prove the induction subgoal.

## A proof technique for use with implications

LP uses the automatic => proof technique to create a subgoal for the induction step:
Creating subgoals for proof of =>
New constants: e1c, ec, yc
Hypothesis:
setTheoremsImpliesHyp.1:
(ec = e1c \/ ec \in xc) /\ e1c \in yc /\ xc \subseteq yc
Subgoal:
ec \in yc

The hypothesis for this subgoal is the result of reducing the hypothesis of the implication in the induction subgoal, after replacing its variables by new constants.

## A proof by cases

The user must issue two more commands to finish the proof. The first directs LP to divide the proof into two cases, depending on whether the formula ec = e1c is true or not.
Creating subgoals for proof by cases
Case hypotheses:
setTheoremsCaseHyp.1.1: ec = e1c
setTheoremsCaseHyp.1.2: ~(ec = e1c)
Same subgoal for all cases:
ec \in yc

LP finishes the first case by using the case hypothesis to rewrite the subterm ec of the subgoal ec \in yc to e1c; then it rewrites e1c \in yc to true using the second conjunct of the implication hypothesis.

In the second case, LP uses the case hypothesis and its hardwired rules to rewrite the first conjunct of the implication hypothesis to ec \in xc, at which point it gets stuck. The complete command directs LP to use what it knows to finish the proof by deriving a few critical-pair equations. First, LP derives xc \subseteq y => ec \in y as critical pair between ec \in xc and the induction hypothesis . Then it obtains ec \in yc as a critical pair between this fact and the last conjunct of the implication hypothesis. This finishes the proof by cases, the proof of the implication for the induction step of the conjecture, and the proof of the conjecture itself.

## Two more theorems about subset

Similar techniques can be used to prove two more basic theorems about subset. In the first, the automatic => proof technique introduces xc = yc as a subgoal. To finish the proof, the user proves a lemma (using the <=> technique) suggested by the principle of extensionality.
prove x \subseteq y /\ y \subseteq x => x = y
prove e \in xc <=> e \in yc by <=>
complete
complete
instantiate x by xc, y by yc in extensionality
qed

In the second, LP fills in all the details in a proof by induction without requiring further guidance from the user.
prove (x \union y) \subseteq z <=> x \subseteq z /\ y \subseteq z by induction on x
qed


# Sample proofs: an alternate induction rule

In order to prove a final theorem about subsets, x \subseteq x, it helps to use a different induction principle than the one we asserted as an axiom. We can prove that induction rule as follows:
prove sort S generated by {}, {__}, \union
resume by induction
set name lemma
critical-pairs *GenHyp with *GenHyp
critical-pairs *InductHyp with lemma
qed

LP formulates an appropriate subgoal for the proof of this conjecture, together with additional hypotheses to be used in the proof, using a new operator isGenerated:
Creating subgoals for proof of induction rule
Induction subgoal hypotheses:
setTheoremsGenHyp.1: isGenerated({})
setTheoremsGenHyp.2: isGenerated({e})
setTheoremsGenHyp.3:
isGenerated(s) /\ isGenerated(s1) => isGenerated(s \union s1)
Induction subgoal:
isGenerated(s)

The user then directs LP to attempt to prove isGenerated(s) by induction (on s) using the asserted induction rule. LP proves the basis subgoal automatically using the hypothesis isGenerated({}). The user guides the proof of the induction subgoal by causing LP to compute critical pairs. The first critical-pairs command causes LP to derive
lemma.1: isGenerated(s) => isGenerated(insert(e, s))

as a critical pair between the second and third isGenerated hypotheses. The second critical-pairs command causes LP to derive the induction subgoal, isGenerated(insert(e, sc)), as a critical pair between this lemma and the induction hypothesis. This finishes the proof of the induction rule.

# Sample proofs: two final theorems about subset

The new induction rule, setTheorems.9, helps us prove the following theorem about subsets:
prove x \subseteq (x \union y) by induction on x using setTheorems
qed

The prove command directs LP to use the induction rule just proved to formulate subgoals for the proof by induction using the generators {}, {__}, and \union instead of the generators {} and insert:
Creating subgoals for proof by structural induction on x'
Basis subgoals:
Subgoal 1: {} \subseteq ({} \union y)
Subgoal 2: {e} \subseteq ({e} \union y)
Induction constants: xc, xc1
Induction hypotheses:
setTheoremsInductHyp.1: xc \subseteq (xc \union y)
setTheoremsInductHyp.2: xc1 \subseteq (xc1 \union y)
Induction subgoal:
Subgoal 3: (xc \union xc1) \subseteq (xc1 \union xc \union y)

LP establishes all three subgoals automatically.

Finally, we prove the last theorem by directing LP to compute a critical pair between the theorem just established and an earlier theorem, x \union {} = x.

prove x \subseteq x
critical-pairs setTheorems with setTheorems
qed


# Sample proofs: how to guide a proof

Here are some things to try when LP and/or you get stuck trying to prove a conjecture.
• Try a proof method based on the form of the conjecture. For example, try resume by <=> if the conjecture is a logical equivalence. Sometimes such proof methods are useful no-brainers''.

• Think about why you believe the conjecture.

• If you've forgotten where you are in a proof, type
display proof    to see the current subgoal
display *Hyp     to see the current hypotheses
display          to see all facts
history          to see how you got where you are


• Be skeptical: maybe the conjecture isn't a theorem.

• Try a proof by cases, either to simplify the current subgoal or to make some hypothesis more useful.

• Look for a useful lemma to prove.

• Try using the critical-pairs command to derive consequences from the hypotheses, for example, by typing critical-pairs *Hyp with *.

• Try alternative proof strategies.
• The cancel command lets you back up.
• The freeze and thaw commands let you save LP's state in a file and get it back again.

• Think again about why you still believe the conjecture.

• Try explaining why LP must be broken to a colleague. (The colleague does not need to understand anything about LP. He or she simply needs to appear to be listening attentively.)

• If you still believe that LP is broken, send e-mail to larch@lcs.mit.edu.

See:

# Syntax descriptions

The syntax of LP is described using equations of the form
<term> ::= <simpleId> | <simpleId> "(" <term>+, ")"

that are interpreted according to the following conventions to mean that a <term> is either a simple identifier or a simple identifier followed by a parenthesized list of terms separated by commas.
chars or "chars"
A terminal symbol
<chars>
A construct defined by a syntax equation
e f
An e followed by (whitespace and) an f
e | f
An e or an f
e ~ f
An e that is not an f
(e)
An e as a syntactic unit, as in (e | f) e. Without parentheses, e | f e is interpreted as e | (f e).
[e]
An optional e
e* or e*, or e*[,]
Zero or more e's, separated respectively by nothing, commas, or optional commas.
e+ or e+, or e+[,]
One or more e's, separated respectively by nothing, commas, or optional commas.

# Symbols

LP divides its input into a sequence of symbols (also known as tokens) of the following kinds.

## Simple identifiers

A <simpleId> is a string of letters, digits, apostrophes, and underscores. Exceptions: a <simpleId> cannot consist of an underscore or an apostrophe alone, and it cannot contain two adjacent underscores. Examples: Nat, 10, x', a_1.

## Operator identifiers

An <opId> is a string of operator characters, that is, characters chosen from among "!#$&*+-./<=>?@^|~", or it is the special symbol "/\". Exception: The symbol -> is not an <opId>. Examples: +, ~=, <=>. ## Escaped identifiers An <escapedId> consists of the escape character "\" alone or the escape character followed by a simple identifier, an operator character, an underscore, another escape character, or a punctuation mark. Examples: \in, \-, \_, \\, $$. ## Punctuation marks Each of the characters in ":,;()[]{}%" is a separate token, unless it is immediately preceded by the escape character. The marker symbol "__" is also treated as a punctuation mark. ## Whitespace A space, tab, or newline terminates the preceding token and is otherwise ignored. Likewise, all characters from an unescaped percent sign through the following newline are treated as whitespace. See the comment command. ## Illegal characters The characters """ and "", as well as all control characters other than whitespace, are reserved for future use. They should not appear in LP scripts except within comments. ## Strings In certain contexts, LP reads its input without dividing it into tokens. A <string> is an arbitrary sequence of characters other than newlines. A <blank-free-string> is a <string> that does not contain any whitespace. # Keywords The keywords by, else, if, in, then, when, and yield cannot be used as identifiers for sorts, variables, or operators. The keywords to and with cannot be used as names for facts, or as components of a name pattern. LP reserves other words (ac, commutative, depth, on, sort, using and well) in certain contexts within facts and conjectures, but does not prohibit their use as identifiers. # Command summary LP is a command-driven system. Commands can be entered in upper, lower, or mixed case. They, and some of their arguments, can be abbreviated by unambiguous prefixes of their hyphen-separated components. LP prompts users for any missing arguments that it requires to execute a command. The syntax of each command is illustrated and described more fully in the description for that command. ## Commands for creating axioms and facts assert <assertion>+; [ ; ] Assert axioms declare operators <opdec>+[,] Declare operators declare sorts <sort>+, Declare sorts declare variables <vardec>+[,] Declare variables make <fact-status> ( <names> | conjecture ) Change the activity or immunity of facts or conjecture ## Forward inference commands apply <names> to <names> Apply the named deduction rules to the named facts complete Run the Knuth-Bendix completion procedure critical-pairs <names> with <names> Find critical pair equations between each rewrite rule in the first named set and each in the second fix <variable> as <term> in <names> Eliminate one existential quantifier in the named facts, replacing the quantified variable by a term instantiate ( <variable> by <term> )+, in <names> Instantiate variables and/or eliminate universal quantifiers in the named facts, replacing the free and quantified variables by the terms normalize <names> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ] Normalize the named facts using the (reversals of the) hardwired and named rewrite rules rewrite <names> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ] Rewrite some subterm of each named fact using a hardwired or (the reversal of) a named rewrite rule ## Backward inference commands apply <names> to conjecture Attempt to prove the current conjecture using the named deduction rules cancel [ all | lemma ] Cancel the current conjecture [and others] normalize conjecture [ with <names> ] Normalize the current conjecture using all hardwired and named rewrite rules prove <conjecture> [ by <proof-method> ] Attempt to prove the conjecture using <proof-method> qed Check that all conjectures have been proved resume [ by <proof-method> ] Resume work on the current conjecture using <proof-method> rewrite conjecture [ with [ reversed ] <names> ] Rewrite some subterm of the current conjecture using some hardwired or named rewrite rule <> Confirm the start of a subgoal in a proof [] Confirm the conclusion of a step in proof ## Commands for user interaction clear Discard all information except global settings delete <names> Delete the named facts define-class <class> <names> Define an abbreviation for <names> display [ <information-type> ] [ <names> ] Print information about the named facts execute <file> Execute commands from <file>.lp execute-silently <file> Same as execute, but suppressing all output forget [ pairs ] Discard information to save space freeze <file> Save the state of LP in <file>.lpfrz help <topic> Print help about the topics history [ <number> | all ] Print a history of [the <number> most recent] commands pop-settings Restore the values of local LP settings push-settings Remember the values of local LP settings quit, q Exit from LP set Print the current values of all LP settings set <setting-name> Print the current value of a setting and prompt for a new value set <setting-name> <setting-value> Change the value of a setting show normal-form <term> Display the reduction of a term to normal form show unifiers <term>, <term> Display all unifiers of two terms statistics [ <statistics-option> ] Print statistics on runtime, storage, and rule usage stop Stop execution of command files thaw <file> Restore a frozen state from <file>.lpfrz unset [ <setting> | all ] Reset setting to its default value version Display information about the current version of LP write <file> [ <names> ] Write the registry and the named facts to <file>.lp % <comment> Record a comment in the log and/or script file ## Commands to control ordering order [ <names> ] Orient the named formulas into rewrite rules register <ordering-constraints> Provide constraints for orienting formulas unorder [ <names> ] Turn the named rewrite rules back into formulas unregister <ordering-information> Cancel the constraints for orienting formulas # Command arguments Many commands take one or more arguments. If you know how to use a command, you can type its arguments on the same line as the command. If you don't, LP will prompt you for the arguments. For example, you can type an entire command set display-mode  in response to LP's command prompt, or you can type an abbreviation of the command without any arguments and await a further prompt: LP1: set display The current display-mode is unambiguous'. New display-mode:  In response to this prompt, you can type • the missing argument, for example, =>, normalization • a carriage return, which aborts execution of the command • a question mark, which provides help such as Legal display modes: qualified unambiguous unqualified  Commands that require a possibly lengthy argument allow you to enter it on more than one line. To do this, don't type the argument on the command line; instead, type it on the following lines, terminating your input with a line consisting of two periods (..). For example, LP1: declare sort Nat LP2: declare operators Please enter operator declarations, terminated with a ..' line, or ?' for help: 0: -> Nat s: Nat -> Nat ..  If you need help in the middle of typing a lengthy argument, type a question mark on a line by itself. # Abbreviations for commands LP allows users to abbreviate a command with an unambiguous prefix of that command. For example, the declare command can be abbreviated to dec, but not to de because de is also a prefix of the delete command. LP also allows users to abbreviate certain command arguments with unambiguous prefixes. When the argument can be a hyphenated word, it is enough to supply unambiguous prefixes of the hyphenated components. Examples: Command Abbreviation ------- ------------ declare operators 0, 1: -> Nat dec op 0, 1: -> Nat display rewrite-rules dis r-r  When an argument to a command can contain reserved words (such as formulas) and names of facts, abbreviations used for reserved words must not conflict with any name-prefix established by the set command. For example, disp form is a legal abbreviation for the command display formulas unless the user has previously entered the command set name form, in which case LP interprets disp form as a request to display all facts whose name begins with the prefix form rather than to display all facts that are formulas. # Interrupting LP Often one wants to interrupt an execute, order, critical-pairs, or complete command (e.g., to change the registry, to display the system, to alter the trace-level, or to freeze the system). This can be done by typing ^G (hold down the control key and type g), which will return the user to the LP command level (it may take several seconds for this to happen). The complete and order commands can be issued again to resume their execution. # Logical syntax and semantics LP is a proof assistant for multisorted first-order logic. Except for the fact that it provides a rich set of notations for functions, LP is based on the syntax and semantics for first-order logic found in many textbooks. For a description of this syntax and semantics, see: # Sorts A sort is a symbol that represents a non-empty set of objects. In LP, distinct sorts represent disjoint sets of objects. Sorts can be simple or compound. At present, LP accords no special treatment to compound sorts. ## Syntax <sort> ::= <simple-sort> | <compound-sort> <simple-sort> ::= <simpleId> <compound-sort> ::= <simpleId> "[" <sort>+, "]"  ## Examples Nat Set[Nat] Map[Set[A],A]  ## Usage LP automatically declares the sort Bool and treats it as representing a set containing two objects, true and false. LP also automatically declares several logical operators for this sort. All sorts other than Bool must be declared in a declare sorts command. Except for Bool and bool, which denote the same sort, case is significant in sort identifiers. Thus Nat and nat are different sorts. Since distinct sorts represent disjoint sets of objects, users who want to consider one sort'' (e.g., Nat) as a subset of another (e.g., Int) must resort to one of two devices. They can define the larger as a sort and the smaller by means of a unary predicate (e.g., isNat:Int->Bool). Alternatively, they can define both as sorts and introduce a mapping from one into the other (e.g., asInt:Nat->Int). # Variables A variable is a symbol that represents an arbitrary element of some sort. A variable can be an unqualified variable identifier or a variable identifier qualified by a sort. ## Syntax <variable> ::= <variableId> [ : <sort> ] <variableId> ::= <simpleId>  ## Examples x x:Int committee: Set[Person]  ## Usage All variables must be declared in a declare variables command. Case is significant in variable identifiers. Thus x and X are different variables. The same <variableId> can be overloaded to name two different variables, that is, two variables with different sorts. It can also be used to name a variable and an operator, provided the operator is not a constant of the same sort. LP uses context to disambiguate overloaded identifiers. At times (e.g., when computing critical pairs or when proving an induction rule), LP creates variables, the identifiers for which consist of the first letter of the sort of the variable, followed by digits if necessary to avoid conflicts with constants and with other variables in the same term or formula. # Operators An operator is a symbol that represents a total function. The signature of the operator specifies the domain and range of the function. Operators can be used with functional, infix, prefix, postfix, bracketed, and conditional notations. ## Syntax <operator> ::= <opForm> [ : <signature> ] <opForm> ::= <functionId> | <simpleOpForm> | <bracketedOp> | <ifOp> <functionId> ::= <simpleId> <simpleOpForm> ::= [ __ ] <simpleOp> [ __ ] | [ __ ] . <simpleId> <simpleOp> ::= <opId> | <escapedId> <bracketedOp> ::= [ __ ] <openSym> __*, <closeSym> [ __ ] <openSym> ::= { | "[" | \( | \< <closeSym> ::= } | "]" |$$ | \> <ifOp> ::= if __ then __ else __  Note: All markers (__) may be omitted from a <simpleOpForm> when there is exactly one declared operator (with the indicated signature) that can be formed by adding some number of markers to the <simpleOpForm>. ## Examples <functionId> f 0 gcd <simpleOpForm> -__ __<=>__ __\in__ __\Post __.first <simpleOp> - <=> \in \Post <bracketedOp> __[__] {}  ## Usage LP automatically declares certain logical, equality, and conditional operators. All other operators must appear in a declare operators command. Case is significant in operator identifiers. Thus f and F are different operators, as are \in and \In. Identifiers for most operators can be overloaded, that is, they can be used to represent operators with different signatures or with markers in different places. LP uses context to disambiguate overloaded identifiers. The arity of an operator is the number of its arguments, that is, the number of sorts in its domain. A unary operator has arity 1, a binary operator has arity 2, and a constant has arity 0. ## See also # Signatures The signature of an operator specifies its domain and range sorts. ## Syntax <signature> ::= <domain> -> <range> <domain> ::= <sort>*, <range> ::= <sort>  ## Examples ->Nat Signature for a nullary operator (constant) of sort Nat Bool->Bool Signature for a unary operator from sort Bool to sort Bool Nat,Nat->Nat Signature for a binary operator from sort Nat to sort Nat Element,Set->Set Signature for a binary operator from sorts Element and Set to sort Set ## Usage Signatures appear in declarations and qualifications for operators. # Constants A constant is a 0-ary operator. An identifier for a constant can be either a <simpleId> (e.g., 0 and c) or a bracketed operator (e.g., {} and []). The same identifier can be overloaded to name two different constants, that is, two constants with different sorts. A <simpleId> can also be used to name a variable and a constant, provided the variable does not have the same sort as the constant. When LP formulates hypotheses for use in proving subgoals in a proof, it generally replaces all free variables in the hypotheses by constants. LP creates identifiers for these constants by appending the letter c and, if necessary, further digits to obtain an identifier that is not already in use. Thus LP may replace the variable x by the constants xc, xc1, ... # Equality operators LP automatically declares an equality operator = and an inequality operator ~= with signature S,S:->Bool for each sort S. These operators have the standard interpretation: two objects of some sort S are equal if and only if they are identical. Operationally, LP uses equational term-rewriting to reduce a term t to a normal form t' such that the formula t = t' is true. For this purpose, LP: • treats the equality operator as commutative except when S is Bool, in which case LP treats it as a synonym for the associative-commutative operator <=> for logical equivalence. • uses two hardwired rewrite rules for each sort S • x:S = x:S -> true • x:S ~= y:S -> ~(x = y) • registers the operators = and ~= as having multiset status for the purpose of orienting formulas into rewrite rules. # Logical operators ## Syntax LP automatically declares the sort Bool and the following logical operators. true A constant denoting the value true of sort Bool. false A constant denoting the value false of sort Bool. ~ A prefix operator, pronounced not'', denoting negation. /\ An infix operator, pronounced and'', denoting conjunction. \/ An infix operator, pronounced or'', denoting disjunction. => An infix operator, pronounced implies'', denoting implication. <=> An infix operator, pronounced if and only if'', denoting equivalence. The operator <=> is a synonym for the equality operator =:Bool,Bool->Bool; it differs from = only in that it binds less tightly during parsing. ## Semantics LP treats /\, \/, and <=> as associative-commutative operators. The meaning of the logical operators is given by the following hardwired rewrite rules. ~true -> false true => p -> p ~false -> true false => p -> true p => true -> true p /\ true -> p p => false -> ~p p /\ false -> false p \/ true -> true p <=> false -> ~p p \/ false -> p p <=> true -> p  LP uses these rewrite rules, together with the following, to simplify terms containing logical operators. ~(~p) -> p p => p -> true p => ~p -> ~p p /\ p -> p ~p => p -> p p /\ ~p -> false p <=> p -> true p \/ p -> p p <=> ~p -> false p \/ ~p -> true ~p <=> ~q -> p <=> q  These rewrite rules are not sufficient to reduce all boolean tautologies to true. There are sets of rewrite rules that are complete in this sense, but they require exponential time and space, and they can expand rather than simplify expressions that do not reduce to true or false. Hence they are not hardwired into LP. Users wishing to use such a set can execute the file ~lp/boolequiv.lp or the file ~lp/boolxor.lp. To assist in orienting formulas into rewrite rules, LP places true and false at the bottom of the registry, and it registers /\, \/, and <=> as having multiset status. ## See also # Conditional operators LP automatically declares a conditional operator if__then__else__ with signature Bool,S,S->S for each sort S. The meaning of this operator is given by the following two hardwired rewrite rules. if true then x else y -> x if false then x else y -> y  LP several additional hardwired rewrite rules to simplify terms containing conditional operators. It always uses the following two rules: if x then y else y -> y if ~x then y else z -> if x then z else y  Unless the hardwired-usage setting dictates otherwise, it also uses the following rewrite rules: if x then true else y -> x \/ y if x then false else y -> ~x /\ y if x then y else true -> x => y if x then y else false -> x /\ y  Likewise, unless the hardwired-usage setting dictates otherwise, LP uses the if-simplification metarule if t1 then t2[t1] else t3[t1] -> if t1 then t2[true] else t3[false]  to reduce terms when t1 occurs as a subterm of t2 or t3; here t2[true] is the result of substituting true for every occurrence of t1 as a subterm of t2, and t3[false] is defined similarly. ## See also # Bracketed operators LP allows users to employ bracketed notations for operators. These notations consist of opening and closing symbols interspersed with arguments (in terms) or markers (in declarations). LP recognizes the following opening and closing symbols: • opening symbols: [, {, $$, \< • closing symbols: ], },$$, \> For example, the declarations declare operators {}: -> Set {__}: Nat -> Set __[__]: Array, Nat -> Nat __[__,__]: Matrix, Nat, Nat -> Nat [__]__: Nat, Matrix -> Array ..  enable the following notations: • empty set: {} • singleton set: {x} • element of an array: a[n] • element of a matrix: m[1, 2] • slice of a matrix: [1]m # Functional operators LP allows users to declare symbols for use in ordinary functional notations in terms. A function identifier, or <functionId>, is just a simple identifier, that is, a <simpleId>. It can be used as a constant (e.g., 0) or as an operator that takes a parenthesized list of arguments (e.g., gcd(x, y)). # Infix, prefix, and postfix operators LP allows users to declare symbols that can be used for infix, postfix, and prefix notations. Users can declare a simple operator (i.e., a <simpleOp>) for such use by decorating it with one or two markers (__) to indicate the location(s) of its arguments. For example, the declarations declare operators __+__, __\mod__: Nat, Nat -> Nat % infix operators -__: Nat -> Nat % prefix operator __!: Nat -> Nat % postfix operator ..  allow the use of infix (e.g., (x + 1) \mod n), prefix (e.g., ~p and -x), and postfix (e.g., 3!) notations. Users can also declare a selection operator for use in postfix notations. For example, the declaration declare operator __.first: Queue -> Element  allows the use of postfix notations such as q.first. See operator. # Quantifiers Terms and formulas in LP can contain existential and universal first-order quantifiers. Examples: \A x \E y (x < y) x < y => \E z (x < z /\ z < y)  The existential quantifier \E x is pronounced there exists an x''. The universal quantifier \A x is pronounced for all x''. ## Syntax <quantifier> ::= <quantifierSym> <variable> <quantifierSym> ::= \A | \E  ## Examples \A x \E i: Nat  ## Usage All quantified variables must have been declared previously in a declare variables command. The standard quantifier scope rules (from first-order logic) apply within terms and formulas. The scope of the leading quantifier in the terms \A x t and \E x t is the term t. An occurrence of a variable in a term is bound if it is in the scope of a quantifier over that variable; otherwise it is free. The free variables in a formula, rewrite rule, or deduction rule are understood to be quantified universally. LP suppresses the display of leading universal quantifiers. LP uses the following hardwired rewrite rules to reduce terms containing quantifiers. \A x t -> t \E x t -> t \E x \E x1 ... xn (x = t /\ P(x)) -> \E x1 ... \E xn P(t) \A x \A x1 ... xn (~(x = t) \/ Q(x)) -> \A x1 ... xn Q(t) \A x \A x1 ... xn (x = t /\ P(x) => Q(x)) -> \A x1 ... xn (P(t) => Q(t)) \A x \A x1 ... xn (P(x) => ~(x = t) \/ Q(x)) -> \A x1 ... xn (P(t) => Q(t))  Here P(x) and Q(x) are arbitrary terms, t is a term with no free occurrences of x, and P(t) and Q(t) are the results of substituting t for x in P(x) and Q(x) with appropriate changes of bound variables to prevent a quantifier in P or Q from capturing a variable in t. The fix and instantiate commands, together with the generalization and specialization proof methods, enable users to eliminate quantifiers from facts and conjectures. See also prenex form. # Prenex form Every formula is logically equivalent to a prenex formula, that is, to a formula consisting of a string of quantifiers applied to a quantifier-free formula. For example, the following formulas are logically equivalent: \E w \A x P(w, x) => \A y \E z P(z, y) \A w \A y \E x \E z (P(w, x) => P(z, y)) \A w \A y \E x (P(w, x) => P(x, y))  Every quantifier in a formula can be classified as a prenex-universal, a prenex-existential quantifier, or neither depending on whether it corresponds to a universal (\A) quantifier, an existential (\E) quantifier, or more than one quantifier in a systematically derived logically equivalent prenex formula. The leading quantifiers in \A x P and \E x P are prenex-universal and prenex-existential quantifiers, respectively. If a quantifier is prenex-universal (prenex-existential) in P, then it is the same in P /\ Q, P \/ Q, Q => P, \A y P, and \E y P; it is prenex-existential (prenex-universal) in ~P and P => Q; and it is neither in any other formula, e.g., in P <=> Q. Formulas can be transformed systematically into prenex formulas using changes of bound variables and the following logical validities. \A x P <=> P (x not free in P) \E x P <=> P (x not free in P) \A x ~P <=> ~\E x P \E x ~P <=> ~\A x P \A x (P /\ Q) <=> \A x P /\ \A x Q \E x (P /\ Q) <=> \E x P /\ Q (x not free in Q) \A x (P \/ Q) <=> \A x P \/ Q (x not free in Q) \E x (P \/ Q) <=> \E x P \/ \E x Q \A x (P => Q) <=> \E x P) => Q (x not free in Q) \A x (P => Q) <=> P => \A x Q (x not free in P) \E x (P => Q) <=> \A x P => \E x Q F(\A x P) <=> (F(true) /\ \A x P) \/ (F(false) /\ ~\A x P)  The instantiate and fix commands enable users to eliminate certain prenex-universal and prenex-existential quantifiers from facts. The generalization and specialization proof methods provide the corresponding functionality for conjectures. # Capturing variables It is generally the case that, for any formula P(x) involving a variable x and any term t, the formula P(t) (i.e., the result of substituting t for each free occurrence of x in P) is a logical consequence of P(x). However, this may not be the case if the substitution captures some free variable in t, that is, if t contains a free variable that becomes bound by some quantifier in P. For example, if P(x) is \E y (x ~= y), then P(y) and P(s(y)) are not logical consequences of P(x) because the free variable y in the terms y and s(y) is captured by the quantifier in P. For this reason, LP automatically changes bound variables to avoid captures during rewriting, in response to the fix and instantiate commands, and in response to the generalization and specialization proof methods. # Terms A term in multisorted first-order logic denotes an element of some sort. A term can be an atomic term (i.e., a variable or a constant), or it can be a compound term with one of the following forms: ## Syntax <term> ::= if <term> then <term> else <term> | <subterm> <subterm> ::= <subterm> ( <simpleOp> <subterm> )+ | ( <simpleOp> | <quantifier> )* <simpleOp> <secondary> | ( <simpleOp> | <quantifier> )* <quantifier> <primary> | <secondary> <simpleOp>* <secondary> ::= <primary> | [ <bracketPre> ] <bracketed> [ <bracketPost> ] <primary> ::= <primaryHead> <primaryTail>* <primaryHead> ::= <simpleId> [ "(" <term>+, ")" ] | "(" <term> ")" <primaryTail> ::= "." <primaryHead> | <qualification> <qualification> ::= ":" <sort> <bracketPre> ::= <primaryHead> | <primary> . <primaryHead> <bracketed> ::= <openSym> <term>*, <closeSym> [ <qualification> ] <bracketPost> ::= <primary> | . <primaryHead> <primaryTail>*  Restrictions: Terms must type-check, that is, all operators must be applied to arguments with sorts in the operator's signature. The following combinations of <simpleOp>s cannot appear in a <subterm> unless they are separated by <simpleOp>s that bind less tightly: • more than one =>, =, or ~= • both /\ and \/ • both = and ~= • two different user-declared <simpleOp>s ## Usage LP uses the following kinds of information to resolve potential ambiguities in terms: • Operator precedence, when two <simpleOp>s appear in the same <subterm> • Context, when overloaded operators appear in a term • Explicit <qualification>s appearing in a term # Overloaded identifiers LP allows users to overload identifiers for variables and operators. For example, LP allows the simple identifier s to be used both as a function s:Nat->Nat and as a variable s:Set, and it allows the operator identifier - to be used both as a prefix operator and as an infix operator. LP automatically overloads the predefined equality and conditional operators (=, ~=, and if__then__else__), once for each declared sort. There are only two restrictions on overloading: • The same identifier cannot be used to name a variable and a constant (i.e., a nullary operator) of the same sort. • The logical, equality, and conditional operators (except for ~) cannot be overloaded with user-defined signatures. LP disambiguates user input by using context to associate each identifier with a previous declaration. When context permits more than one association, users must supply additional annotations to resolve the ambiguity. ## Disambiguating terms Users can resolve potential ambiguities in terms by qualifying selected subterms with their sorts. For example, given the declarations declare variables x, y, z: Bool, x, y, w: Nat  the terms x = z and x = w are unambiguous, but the term x = y is ambiguous. It can be disambiguated in several ways, for example, as x:Nat = y or as x = y:Bool. Given the additional declarations declare operators f:Nat->Nat, f:Nat->Bool, f:Bool->Bool  the term f(z) is unambiguous, but the term f(w) needs to be disambiguated as either f(w):Nat or f(w):Bool, and the term f(x) needs to be disambiguated as one of f(x:Bool), f(x:Nat):Nat, or f(x:Nat):Bool. Another potential ambiguity in terms arises from the treatment LP accords to the period symbol (.). For example, given the declarations declare operators 1, min: -> Nat a: -> Array __.__: Array, Nat -> Nat __ .size, __ .min: Array -> Nat ..  the terms a.size and a.1 are unambiguous, but a.min could represent an application of either the infix operator . or the postfix operator .min. In such cases, LP disambiguates a.min as containing a postfix operator; users who want . to refer to the infix operator can write a.(min). ## Disambiguating operators outside of terms Users can resolve an ambiguous operator identifier by qualifying it with its signature or by decorating it with one or two markers (__) to indicate whether it is an infix, postfix, or prefix operator. ## See also # Precedence ## Parsing When parsing a term, LP binds some operators more tightly than others, thereby reducing the need for parentheses. The operators in the following list bind increasingly tightly: • if __ then __ else __ • <=> • => • /\ and \/ • = and ~= • All infix, postfix, and prefix operators not otherwise mentioned in this list • Postfix selection operators (of the form .<simpleId>) and . as an infix operator Parentheses are required elsewhere to specify associativity, except that terms such as t1 + t2 + ... + tn, which involve a sequence of terms separated by a single infix identifier (other than =>, =, and ~=), do not need parentheses and are associated to the left. Quantifiers bind more tightly than all operators. ### Examples Unparenthesized version Interpretation ---------------------- -------------- a < b + c Error p /\ q \/ r Error p => q => r Error x - y - z (x - y) - z a = b + c => b < s(a) (a = (b + c)) => (b < s(a)) a.b.c! ((a.b).c)! ~p /\ ~x.pre (~p) /\ (~(x.pre)) \E x (x < c) => c > 0 (\E x (x < c)) => (c > 0) \A x \E y x < y (\A x \E y x) < y  ## Ordering When orienting formulas into rewrite rules, LP sometimes uses a partial ordering on operators that is known in the literature as a precedence relation. See register. # Formulas A formula is boolean-valued term. ## Syntax <formula> ::= <term>  Restriction: the sort of the <term> must be Bool. ## Examples x + s(y) = s(x + y) x | y <=> \E z (y = x * z) x < y \/ x = y \/ y < x x < y => \E z (x < z /\ z < y)  ## Usage Users can assert formulas, prove them, or derive them from other formulas by forward inference. Operationally, LP uses formulas by orienting them (if possible) into a terminating set of rewrite rules. LP also automatically reduces all nonimmune formulas to normal form. LP automatically rewrites formulas of the form ~p to p = false and formulas of the form ~p = false to p. Furthermore, it uses the following hardwired deduction rules to derive new formulas from existing formulas and rewrite rules. lp_and_is_true: when p /\ q yield p, q lp_or_is_false: when ~(p \/ q) yield ~p, ~q  LP uses the names of these deduction rules when it reports their application, but they cannot be entered by the user when naming objects. To display the formulas that LP has not converted into rewrite rules, type display formulas (or dis fo for short). # Equations An equation is a formula that consists of a pair of terms separated by an equality operator. ## Syntax <equation> ::= <term> (= | <=>) <term>  Restriction: The two <term>s in an equation must have the same sort. This sort must be Bool if the equality operator is <=>. ## Examples x + 0 = x x <= y <=> x < y \/ x = y x | y <=> \E z (y = x*z)  ## Usage LP treats equations in the same manner as it treats formulas. Indeed, any formula is logically equivalent to an equation: F is logically equivalent to F <=> true. # Operational syntax and semantics The basis for each proof in LP is a logical system that contains a collection of facts (axioms, hypotheses, and previously proved theorems) available for use in that proof. There is a separate logical system, known as a proof context, for the proof of each conjecture and subgoal. The facts in a logical system have both semantic content (expressed by formulas in first-order logic) and operational content. For more information about this operational content, see: # Inconsistency An inconsistency is a formula that is logically false. LP automatically recognizes the formula x ~= t, where t is a term not involving the variable x, as inconsistent. Thus, LP rules out empty sorts. It also recognizes the formulas false and b = t, where t is a term not involving the boolean variable b, as inconsistent. Thus, the boolean sort contains two distinct values. If an inconsistency arises during a proof by contradiction, that proof succeeds. If it arises during a proof by cases, the current case is deemed impossible. # Rewrite rules A rewrite rule is an operational form for a formula. LP uses rewrite rules to rewrite terms to logically equivalent terms. ## Syntax <rewrite-rule> ::= <term> -> <term>  Restrictions: The two <term>s in a rewrite rule must have the same sort. The left side of the rule must not be a variable, the logical constant true, or the logical constant false. Every free variable in the right side must also occur free in left side. ## Examples x + 0 -> x x <= y -> x < y \/ x = y x | y -> \E z (y = x*z) 0 < 1 -> true  ## Usage Users cannot assert or prove rewrite rules directly. Instead, they must assert or prove formulas, which LP then orients into rewrite rules. The logical content of a term is the equation that results from replacing -> by =. LP maintains the invariant that all active rewrite rules have been applied to all nonimmune formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules in the system. Some rewrite rules are hardwired into LP to define properties of the logical connectives, the conditional and equality operators, and the quantifiers. The restriction that the left side of a rewrite rule not be a variable prevents rules'' like x -> f(x) from leading to a nonterminating rewriting sequence such as x -> f(x) -> f(f(x)) -> .... The restriction that it not be true or false preserves the meaning of those logical constants. The restriction that the right side not introduce a free variable is more technical. It prevents logically equivalent rules'' such as f(x) -> f(y) and f(u) -> f(v) from producing different results when applied to terms like y + f(x). # Operator theories An operator theory is logically equivalent to a set of equations involving a single operator. At present, LP supports two operator theories: • the commutative theory, which is axiomatized by the commutative law x + y = y + x • the associative-commutative (ac) theory, which is axiomatized by the commutative law together with the associative law x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z. LP uses operator theories to circumvent problems with nonterminating rewriting systems. Because the commutative law cannot be oriented into a terminating rewrite rule, LP uses equational term-rewriting to match and unify terms modulo the ac and commutative operator theories. ## Syntax <operator-theory> ::= (ac | commutative) <operator>  ## Examples ac + commutative gcd  ## Usage Users can assert or prove operator theories. LP hardwires the logical connectives /\, \/, and <=> as associative-commutative operators. It hardwires the equality operator =:S,S->Bool as a commutative operator when the sort S is not Bool. The fact ac op normalizes the fact commutative op to true. To display the operator theories in LP's logical system, type display operator-theories (or disp o-t for short). # Induction rules An induction rule is logically equivalent to an infinite set of formulas, which justify the use of proofs by induction. ## Syntax <induction-rule> ::= sort <sort> generated [ freely ] by <operator>+, | well founded <operator>  ## Examples sort Nat generated freely by 0, s sort Set generated by {}, insert sort Set generated by {}, {__}, \U well founded <  ## Usage Users can assert or prove induction rules. Assertions like sort Nat generated by 0, s specify sets of generators for use in proofs by structural induction. The listed operators (e.g, 0 and s) must have the named sort (e.g., Nat) as their range. If none of the domain sorts of an operator is the same as its range sort, the operator is a basis generator (e.g., 0); otherwise, it is an inductive generator (e.g, s). Structural induction rules are logically equivalent to infinite sets of first-order formulas of the form P(0) /\ \A x (P(x) => P(s(x))) => \A x P(x)  where P is an arbitrary first-order formula. The use of freely supplements a structural induction rule with a set of formulas asserting that the named operators are one-to-one and have disjoint ranges. For example, sort Nat generated freely by 0, s gives rise to the formulas s(x) = s(y) <=> x = y and 0 ~= s(x). Assertions like well founded < specify a binary relation for use in proofs by well-founded induction. The listed operator must have a signature of the form S,S->Bool for some sort S. Well-founded induction rules are logically equivalent to infinite sets of first-order formulas of the form \A x (\A y (y < x => P(y)) => P(x)) => \A x P(x)  where P is an arbitrary first-order formula. To display the induction rules that LP currently has available for use, type display induction-rules (or disp i-r for short). # Deduction rules A deduction rule is logically equivalent to a single formula in multisorted first-order logic. That formula has the form of a logical implication. LP uses deduction rules to derive consequences from other formulas and rewrite rules. ## Syntax <deduction-rule> ::= when <hypothesis>+, yield <conclusion>+, <hypothesis> ::= <formula> <conclusion> ::= <formula>  ## Examples when x < y, y < z yield x < z when p /\ q yield p, q when \A e (e \in s1 <=> e \in s2) yield s1 = s2  ## Usage Users can assert or prove deduction rules. A deduction rule is logically equivalent to the formula obtained by having the conjunction of its hypotheses imply the conjunction of its conclusions. Thus the first example is logically equivalent to the formula x < y /\ y < z => x < z. A deduction rule can be applied to a formula or rewrite rule if there is a substitution that matches the first hypothesis of the deduction rule to the formula or rewrite rule. The result of applying a deduction rule with one hypothesis is the set of formulas obtained by applying the substitution(s) that matched its hypothesis to each of its conclusions. For example, applying the second example to 1 < f(x) /\ f(x) < 2 yields two formulas, 1 < f(x) and f(x) < 2. Likewise, applying the third example to x \in s <=> x \in (s \U s) yields the formula s = s \U s. The result of applying a deduction rule with more than one hypothesis is the set of deduction rules obtained by deleting its first hypothesis (i.e., the one that was matched) and applying the substitution(s) that matched this hypothesis to the remainder of the deduction rule. For example, applying the first example to the formula a < b yields the deduction rule when b < z yield a < z  On the other hand, applying the logically equivalent deduction rule when y < z, x < y yield x < z  to the same formula yields a different result, namely, when x < a yield x < b  When applying deduction rules, LP produces the strongest valid conclusions by changing, when appropriate, variables in the conclusions that do not occur freely in the hypotheses. For example, applying the deduction rule when P(x) yield Q(x, y)  to the formula P(f(y)) yields the result Q(f(y), y1) and not the weaker result Q(f(y), y). The results of applying a deduction rule are given the default activity and immunity, as established by the set command. LP maintains the invariant that all active deduction rules have been applied to all nonimmune formulas and rewrite rules in the system. To display the deduction rules that LP currently has available for use, type display deduction-rules (or disp d-r for short). See formulas for a list of deduction rules that are hardwired into LP. See also partitioned-by. # Partitioned by The partitioned-by construct provides a convenient syntax for expressing the fact that two objects of a given sort are the same if they cannot be distinguished by an operator in a given list. Operationally, a <partitioned-by> is equivalent to a deduction rule. ## Syntax <partitioned-by> ::= sort <sort> partitioned by <operator>+,  Restriction: Each of the <operator>s must have <sort> in its domain. ## Examples sort Set partitioned by \in sort Stack partitioned by isEmpty, top, pop  ## Usage Users can assert or prove a <partitioned-by>, which LP automatically translates into a deduction rule. For example, LP translates the examples into the deduction rules when \A e (e \in s = e \in s1) yield s = s1 when isEmpty(s) = isEmpty(s1), top(s) = top(s1), pop(s) = pop(s1) yield s = s1  In general, LP translates a statement like sort E partitioned by op1:E->R, op2:E,A->R, op3:E,E,A->R  into to the deduction rule when op1(e1) = op1(e2), \A a (op2(e1, a) = op2(e2, a)), \A a \A e3 (op3(e1, e3, a) = op3(e2, e3, a)), \A a \A e3 (op3(e3, e1, a) = op3(e3, e2, a)) yield e1 = e2  which uses auxiliary variables e1, e2, and e3 of sort E and a and a1 of sort A. # Assigning and using names ## See # Assigning names to facts Each fact in LP's logical system has a name consisting of an alphanumeric prefix followed by a series of numeric suffixes separated by periods. ## Syntax <name> ::= <simpleId> <extension>* <extension> ::= . <number>  ## Examples arith.1 set.2.3  ## Usage LP assigns new names to facts in response to the assert and fix commands, to critical pair equations in response to the critical-pairs and complete commands, and to conjectures in response to the prove command. These names have a single numeric <extension>, whose value increases each time a new name is required. Users can specify the name prefix for a fact in the assert command, or for a conjecture in the prove command, by writing :<simpleId>: before the fact. Otherwise the value of the name-prefix setting governs the <simpleId> used as a prefix for new names. Normalization, ordering, unordering, and proofs preserve the names of formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. LP assigns subnames (i.e., names with an additional <extension>) to instantiations of formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules, to the results of applying deduction rules, and to hypotheses introduced during the proof of a conjecture. The names of the results of applying a deduction rule to a formula extend the name of the deduction rule if the deduction rule has more than one hypothesis; otherwise they extend the name of the formula. One fact is called a descendant of another (and the latter is called an ancestor of the former) if the name of the first extends, by zero or more <extension>s, the name of the second. A proper ancestor (or descendant) of a fact is an ancestor (or descendant) with a different name. The names of the hardwired deduction rules for formulas begin with lp_. The hardwired rewrite rules for the logical connectives, the conditional and equality operators, and the quantifiers do not have names, nor do conjectures introduced as subgoals in proofs. ## See also # Naming facts in commands Many LP commands require one or two sets of facts as arguments, which users describe in terms of the names and kinds of facts they contain. ## Syntax <names> ::= <name-primary>+, | <name-primary> ("/" <name-primary>)+ | <name-primary> ("~" <name-primary>)+ <name-primary> ::= <name-pattern> | <class> | "(" [ <names> ] ")" <name-pattern> ::= <prefix-pattern> [ . ] | <prefix-pattern> <extension>+ [ : <last> ] [ ! ] <prefix-pattern> ::= ( <simpleId> | "*" )+ <last> ::= <number> | last  ## Examples arith, set.2:last *Hyp * ~ (nat, set)  ## Usage Subsets of LP's logical system are described by expressions (called <names>) built up from primitive descriptions using operators for union (","), intersection ("/"), and difference ("~"). Parentheses specify the associativity of these infix operators. The empty set is named by (), and the set of all facts in LP's logical system is named by *. Primitive <names> include <name>s (e.g., set.2) and <name-pattern>s of the following forms, where N is a <name> that may have asterisks embedded in its alphanumeric prefix (e.g., * and *Hyp.1), and where m and n are positive integers. Pattern Facts denoted by pattern ------- ------------------------ N! those with names that can be obtained from N by replacing the asterisks in N by alphanumeric characters N those denoted by N! and all their descendents N.m:n! those denoted by N.m!, N.m+1!, ..., N.n! N.m:n those denoted by N.m, N.m+1, ..., N.n N.m:last! those denoted N.m!, N.m+1!, ... N.m:last those denoted N.m, N.m+1, ...  See also <class>. # Name classes A class is an expression that, when evaluated, produces a list of <name>s of facts. ## Syntax <class> ::= <class-name> | <class-constant> | <class-function> "(" <names> ")" | contains-operator "(" <operator> ")" | contains-variable "(" <variable> ")" | copy "(" <class-name> ")" <class-name> ::=$ <simpleId>
<class-constant> ::= deduction-rules | formulas | induction-rules
| operator-theories | rewrite-rules | active | passive
| immune | nonimmune | ancestor-immune
<class-function> ::= ancestors | proper-ancestors | descendants
| proper-descendants | eval


## Examples

$facts contains-operator(+) eval(* ~$old)


## Usage

The
define-class command defines a <class-name> as an abbreviation for some <names>. Each <class>, other than ones beginning with copy or eval, also serves as an abbreviation for the names of facts matching a certain criterion. For example, contains-operator(+) describes the collection of all facts containing the operator +.

A <class-name> (or <class>) appearing in an argument to a command other than define-class is replaced by its definition (or evaluated) when the command is executed. Evaluation in the define-class command can be forced using one of the following operators:

copy($class) Replaces the <class-name>$class by its current definition

eval(exp)
Replaces the <names> exp by an explicit list of the names of all facts in LP's logical system that match exp

• Assigning a <name> to a fact
• Using <names> in commands

# The assert command

The assert command adds axioms to LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<assert-command> ::= assert <assertion>;+ [;]
<assertion>      ::= [:<simpleId>:] <fact>
<fact>           ::= <formula> | <deduction-rule> | <induction-rule>
| <operator-theory> | <partitioned-by>


## Examples

assert
e1 \in insert(e2, s) <=> e1 = e2 \/ e1 \in s;
when \A e (e \in s1 <=> e \in s2) yield s1 = s2;
Set generated by {}, insert;
ac \U;
Set partitioned by \in
..


## Usage

LP adds the asserted facts to its logical system. It assigns a name to each of these facts using the current name-prefix setting, unless an assertion begins with :<simpleId>:, in which case LP uses that identifier as the name-prefix for that assertion.

LP takes certain default actions when it adds assertions to its logical system.

• It translates <partitioned-by>s into deduction rules.
• It normalizes asserted formulas and deduction rules (unless the immunity setting dictates otherwise).
• It attempts to orient asserted formulas into terminating rewrite rules (unless the automatic-ordering setting dictates otherwise).
• It uses new rewrite rules to normalize the other formulas and deduction rules (unless the activity setting dictates otherwise).
• It uses new deduction rules to deduce consequences from formulas and rewrite rules (again, unless the activity setting dictates otherwise).
• It registers operators asserted to be ac or commutative as having multiset status. If any of these operators had a non-ac (or noncommutative) polynomial interpretation, LP prints a warning and gives the operator a default ac (or commutative) polynomial interpretation.
• It turns all rewrite rules containing an operator asserted to be ac or commutative back into formulas, and it reflattens all facts containing these operators. This process can change these facts or even reduce them to true, as is the case for the commutativity equation.

# The declare command

Except for certain predefined logical, equality, and conditional operators, all identifiers for sorts, variables, and operators must be declared in a declare command before any other use.

## Syntax

<declare-command> ::= declare ( <sortDecs> | <varDecs> | <opDecs> )
<sortDecs>        ::= sorts <sort>+,
<varDecs>         ::= variables <varDec>+[,]
<varDec>          ::= <variableId>+, : <sort>
<opDecs>          ::= operators <opDec>+[,]
<opDec>           ::= <opForm>+, : <signature>

Restrictions: There must be at least one marker in each <opForm> that contains a <simpleOpForm>. The number of marker symbols in any <opForm> not containing a <functionId> must equal the number of sorts in the domain of the operator's signature. A period (.) can be declared as an infix operator, but not as a prefix or a postfix operator. The predefined operators cannot be overloaded with user-defined signatures.

Notes: The words sorts, operators, and variables can be abbreviated by any prefix, as well as by ops and vars.

## Examples

declare sorts Nat, Set
declare variables i, j: Nat, s: Set
declare operators
0:                     -> Nat
s, __!:       Nat      -> Nat
__+__, __*__: Nat, Nat -> Nat
{}:                    -> Set
{__}:         Nat      -> Set
__\U__:       Set, Set -> Set
~__:          Set      -> Set
..


## Usage

The declare sorts command introduces identifiers for use as sorts.

The declare variables command introduces variables with the indicated sorts.

The declare operators commands introduces operators with the indicated signatures. Marker symbols (__) in an <opForm> indicate where the arguments of the operator are placed when it is used in a term.

LP at times creates variables and operators in response to user commands. To avoid problems, it is a good idea for users to declare the identifiers they need before issuing commands (such as prove) that may cause LP to appropriate an identifier for its own use (e.g., by creating a variable s1 of sort Set and thereby preventing the user from later using s1 as a constant of sort Set).

The display symbols command produces a list of all declared identifiers.

# The make command

The make command changes the activity or immunity of a collection of facts or of the current conjecture.

## Syntax

<make_command> ::= make <fact-status> ( <names> | conjecture )
<fact-status>  ::= active | passive | immune | nonimmune | ancestor-immune

Note: The <fact-status> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

make inactive rewrite-rules
make immune conjecture


## Usage

LP automatically uses any rewrite rules made active by the make command to normalize terms appearing in the current conjecture or in nonimmune facts in LP's logical system. It also automatically applies any deduction rules made active by the make command.

LP automatically normalizes any rewrite rules and deduction rules made nonimmune by the make command, and it applies all active deduction rules to these deimmunized rules.

See the activity and immunity settings.

# The order command

The order command directs LP to attempt to orient formulas into rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<order-command> ::= order [ <names> ]


## Examples

order
order nat


## Usage

When the automatic-ordering setting is on, LP attempts to orient formulas into rewrite rules automatically. When it is off, LP orients formulas only in response to an explicit order or complete command. If no <names> are specified in an order command, LP attempts to orient all formulas in the system. If <names> are specified, LP attempts to orient only the named formulas (including any new formulas that LP generates during the ordering process, for example, as a result of applying a deduction rule to a newly reduced fact).

When a formula is an equation t1 = t2 or t1 <=> t2, LP uses the current ordering-method, if possible, to orient it into the rewrite rule t1 -> t2 or into the rewrite rule t2 -> t1. When a formula f is not an equation (i.e., when its principal operator is neither = nor <=>), LP orients it into the rewrite rule f -> true (or into the rewrite rule f1 -> false, if f has the form ~f1).

If the current ordering method is a registered or polynomial ordering, the order command also attempts to orient the formulas into a provably terminating set of rewrite rules. If the current ordering method is a brute-force ordering, the order command may orient the formulas into a nonterminating set of rewrite rules.

Users can interrupt and resume the operation of the order command.

# Brute-force orderings

LP's brute-force ordering procedures give users complete control over the direction in which formulas are oriented into rewrite rules, but provide no guarantees about termination.

## The left-to-right ordering

This ordering method causes LP to orient equations into rewrite rules from left to right, provided the results are valid rewrite rules. Equations that cannot be oriented from left to right are left unoriented.

## The either-way ordering

This ordering method causes LP to orient equations into rewrite rules from left to right, provided the results are valid rewrite rules. If an equation cannot be oriented from left to right, but can be from right to left, the method causes it to be oriented in that direction; otherwise it is left unoriented.

## The manual ordering

When the automatic-registry setting is off, this ordering method causes LP to interact with the user to select an orientation for each equation. When the setting is on, this ordering method does not orient any formulas into rewrite rules.

# Registered orderings

LP provides two registered orderings, the dsmpos and noeq-dsmpos orderings, which are based on LP-suggested partial orderings of operators and which guarantee termination of the set of rewrite rules when no associative-commutative operators are present. Most users rely on these orderings to orient all formulas. In striking contrast to the brute-force orderings, they hardly ever cause difficulties by producing a nonterminating set of rewrite rules.

Registered orderings use information in a registry to orient formulas into rewrite rules. There are two kinds of information in a registry: height information and status information.

When the current registry does not contain enough information to orient a formula, LP will generate minimal sets of extensions to the registry, called suggestions, that permit the formula to be oriented. If the automatic-registry setting is on, LP picks one of these extensions to orient a formula without user interaction; it does not try all extensions. If the setting is off, LP will interact with the user, who must pick the desired extension.

# The dsmpos ordering

The dsmpos ordering is a registered ordering used to orient formulas into rewrite rules. It defines a well founded partial order on terms from a partial order on operators, given by height constraints, and from status constraints. When no associative-commutative operators or quantifiers are present, the rewrite relation of the set of rewrite rules produced by the dsmpos ordering is embedded in this well founded partial order on terms and hence is guaranteed to terminate.

The dsmpos ordering computes complete sets of minimal extensions to LP's registry when necessary to orient a formula. The noeq-dsmpos is the same ordering, except that it does not suggest assigning equal heights to two operators; as a result, it is faster, but less powerful than dsmpos.

Let s and t be two terms, with s = f(s1, ..., sm) and t = g(t1, ..., tn). Then s >= t in the dsmpos ordering iff

• si >= t for some i, or
• f > g (i.e., f is higher than g in the registry) and s > ti for all i, or
• either f and g have the same height in the registry, or f >= g and s > ti for all i, and in either case
• if both f and g can have multiset status, then the multiset {s1, ..., sm} is greater than or equal to the multiset {t1, ..., tn}, or
• if both f and g can have lexicographic status, then s > ti for all i and the sequence < s1, ..., sm > is lexicographically greater than or equal to the sequence < t1, ..., tn >.
Here M1 is greater than or equal to M2 as a multiset iff M2 has the same elements, though possibly with different multiplicities, as (M1 - X) U Y, where X and Y are multisets such that for any y in Y there is an x in X with x > y.

The dsmpos ordering is based on the recursive path ordering with status due to Dershowitz, Kamin, and Levy. The definition of the ordering >= is due to Forgaard. The generation of suggestions is due to Detlefs and Forgaard.

LP uses the following modification of the dsmpos ordering to orient equations that contain quantifiers. It replaces each quantifier (over a sort S) in an equation by a pseudo-operator with signature S, Bool -> Bool, and it replaces each bound variable by the constant true; in this way, it converts each subterm of the form \E x P(x) or \A x P(x) in an equation into a subterm \E(true, P(true)) or \A(true, P(true)). (In general, the resulting term does not sort check.) Then LP tries to orient the transformed equation with the aid of registry suggestions for the pseudo-operators. It it succeeds, it orients the original equation in the same direction as its transformation.

# Polynomial orderings

The polynomial ordering can be used to prove the termination of sets of rewrite rules involving associative-commutative operators. Because it requires considerable user input, it is generally used only to experiment with termination proofs of small sets of rewrite rules, not to orient large sets of equations into rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<polynomial-constraint> ::= polynomials <operator> <polynomial>*[,]
<polynomial>            ::= <polynomial-term> ( "+" <polynomial-term> )*
<polynomial-term>       ::= <polynomial-factor> ( "*" <polynomial-factor> )*
<polynomial-factor>     ::= <polynomial-primary> [ "^" <number> ]
<polynomial-primary>    ::= <variable> | <number> | "(" <polynomial> ")"


## Examples

polynomials + x + y + 1, x + 2


## Usage

The polynomial ordering is based on user-supplied interpretations of operators by sequences of polynomials. The ordering extends these interpretations to terms by interpreting a variable by a sequence of identity polynomials and a compound term by the interpretation of its principal operator applied to the interpretations of its arguments. One term is less than another in the polynomial ordering if its interpretation is lexicographically less than that of the second term (one polynomial is less than another if its value is less than that of the other for all values of its variables).

The command set ordering polynomial n sets the current ordering-method to a polynomial ordering based on sequences of length n; the default value of n is 1.

The command register polynomial op p1, ..., pn assigns the sequence p1, ..., pn of polynomials as the polynomial interpretation of the operator op. If no polynomials are specified, LP prompts the user to enter them on the following lines. The polynomials are entered like standard LP terms, using the binary operators +, *, \and fq{^} (for exponentiation), the variables in the prompt, and positive integer coefficients. LP understands operator precedence for terms representing polynomials, so these terms need not be fully parenthesized..

If the sequence of polynomials associated with an operator is longer than the length of the current polynomial ordering, the extra polynomials are ignored. If it is shorter, it is extended by replicating its last element.

Each operator has a default interpretation. Suggestions for assigning polynomials:

(1) f nullary                           I[f]   = 2
(2) f(x1,...,xn) -> t  [f not in t]     I[f]   = I[t] + 1
(3) h(f(t1,...,tn)) ->                  I[h]   = a*(x^i) with i > 1
f(h(t1),...,h(tn))               I[f]   = x1 + ... + xn
(4) f associative                       I.1[f] = (a*x*y) + x with a > 0
f(f(x,y),z) -> f(x,f(y,z))          I.2[f] = (a*(x^i)) + y with a, i > 0
(5) f associative                       I.1[f] = (a*x*y) + y with a > 0
f(x,f(y,z)) -> f(f(x,y),z)          I.2[f] = x + (a*(y^i)) with a, i > 0
(6) f associative-commutative           I[f]   = (a*x*y) + (b*(x+y)) + c
with ac + b - b^2 = 0
(7) f, g associative-commutative        I[f]   = a*x*y with a > 0
g distributive over f               I[g]   = x + y
or  I[f]     as in (6) with a > 0
I[g]   = x+y+d     with d = b/a
(8) f should be rewritten to g          degree(I.1[f]) > degree(I.1[g])


# Interacting with the ordering procedures

When the automatic-ordering setting is off, LP will prompt users to confirm any extensions to the registry when as registered ordering is in use, or to select an action for an equation LP is unable to orient. When presented with a prompt like
The following sets of suggestions will allow the equation to be oriented into
a rewrite rule:

Direction   Suggestions
---------   -----------
1.     ->       a > b
2.     <-       b > a

What do you want to do with the formula?

users can type ? to see a menu such as
Enter one of the following, or type < ret > to exit.
accept[1..2]   interrupt      left-to-right  postpone       suggestions
divide         kill           ordering       right-to-left

of possible responses, which have the following effects.
accept (or a number in the indicated range)
Confirms the first (or the selected) extension to the registry. If this action is missing from the menu, no extension to the registry will orient the equation.

divide
Causes LP to assert two new equations that imply the original equation. This action is useful when an incompatible equation such as x/x = y/y cannot be oriented into a rewrite rule because each side contains a variable not present in the other side. If the user elects to divide this equation, LP will ask the user to supply a name for a new operator, for example, e; it will then declare the operator and assert two equations, x/x = e and y/y = e, both of which can be oriented (by making / higher than e) and which normalize the original equation to an identity. The resulting system is a conservative extension of the old system.

interrupt
Interrupts the ordering process and returns LP to the command level.

kill
Deletes the problematic equation from the system. This action should be used with caution, since it may change the theory associated with the current logical system.

left-to-right
Orients the equation from left to right without extending the registry. Doing this removes any guarantee of termination.

ordering
Displays the current registry (as does the display ordering command) and prompts the user for another response.

postpone
Defers the attempt to orient this equation. Whenever another equation is successfully oriented, all postponed equations are re-examined, since they may have been normalized into something more tractable.

right-to-left
Orients the equation from right to left without extending the registry. Doing this removes any guarantee of termination.

suggestions
Redisplays the LP-generated suggestions for extending the registry and prompts the user for another response.

# The register command

The register command provides LP with hints for use in orienting formulas into terminating sets of rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<register-command>    ::= register <ordering-constraint>
<ordering-constraint> ::= <height-constraint> | <status-constraint>
| <polynomial-constraint>

Note: The first word in the <ordering-constraint> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

register height f > g
register status multiset +
register polynomials + x + y + 1, x + 2


## Usage

The register command adds constraints to a registry that LP uses in conjunction with ordering methods that attempt to orient formulas into a set of terminating rewrite rules. The height and status constraints are used by LP's registered orderings, and the polynomial constraints are used by LP's polynomial ordering.

When the automatic-registry setting is on and the ordering-method setting is a registered ordering, LP automatically adds height and status constraints to the registry, as necessary, to orient equations in order to ensure that the resulting set of rewrite rules is terminating.

The display ordering command displays the constraints in the registry. Ordering constraints can be removed from the registry with the unregister command.

# Registered orderings: height

Height constraints define a partial ordering on operators that induces a partial ordering on terms. This ordering, along with status constraints, is used by LP's registered orderings to orient equations into provably terminating sets of rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<height-constraint> ::= height <operator-set> ( <height> <operator-set> )+
| ( bottom | top ) <operator>+[,]
<height>            ::= > | = | >=
<operator-set>      ::= <operator> | "(" <operator>+[,] ")"

Note: The first word in a <height-constraint> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

height f > g
height => > (/\, \/) > true = false
bottom f


## Usage

The height constraint f > g suggests that terms involving f are more complicated,'' and should be rewritten to, terms containing g. The height constraint f = g suggests that terms involving f and g are equally complicated. The height constraint f >= g can be strengthened to either f > g or to f = g; it is inconsistent with the constraint g > f. A compound height constraint, such as the second example, suggests that => is higher than /\ and \/, both of which are higher than true, which has the same height as false.

The transitive closure of the height constraints in LP's registry defines a partial order on operators, which is used by the dsmpos ordering. The register command will reject any height constraint that is not a consistent extension to its registry.

The bottom (top) constraints suggest that LP extend its registry when it needs information about a listed operator by giving that operator a lower (higher) height than any non-bottom (non-top) operator. LP does not actually extend its registry until it needs this information. In general, putting operators at the bottom (top) of the registry causes terms to be reduced toward (away from) ones made out of these operators.

# Registered orderings: status

The status of an operator determines which of its arguments is given the most weight when using a registered ordering to orient an equation containing that operator into a provably terminating rewrite rule.

## Syntax

<status-constraint> ::= status <status> <operator>+[,]
<status>            ::= left-to-right | right-to-left | multiset

Note: The word status and the <status> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

status left-to-right f, g
status multiset +


## Usage

LP assigns a status to operators, if necessary, when using a registered ordering to orient equations into rewrite rules. Users can assign a status to an operator with the register status command.

The left-to-right and right-to-left statuses are called lexicographic statuses. The assign more weight, respectively, to the leftmost or rightmost arguments of an operator. They are useful when orienting the associativity equation f(f(x,y),z) = f(x,f(y,z)). If f has left-to-right, this equation would be oriented from left to right. If f has right-to-left status, it would be would be oriented from right to left.

The multiset status is appropriate for ac and commutative operators, because it gives all arguments equal weight.

The dsmpos ordering is defined on terms containing an operator without a defined status if the ordering would produce the same results no matter what status was given to that operator. This property allows LP or the user to define the status of an operator without invalidating the proof of termination for previously oriented rewrite rules.

# The unorder command

The unorder command turns rewrite rules back into formulas.

## Syntax

<unorder-command> ::= unorder [ <names> ]


## Examples

unorder
unorder nat


## Usage

The unorder command causes LP to turn the named rewrite rules back into formulas. If no names are specified, LP unorders all rewrite rules.

Even if the automatic-ordering setting is on, the unordered formulas are not immediately reordered into rewrite rules. This gives users an opportunity to change the ordering-method or the registry. The formulas will be oriented into rewrite rules in response to an explicit order command or in response to some other command that would invoke LP's automatic ordering (for example, the assert command).

# The unregister command

The unregister command causes LP to discard information used to control the registered and polynomial orderings.

## Syntax

<unregister-command>   ::= unregister <ordering-information>
<ordering-information> ::= registry | ( bottom | top ) <operator>+[,]

Note: The first word in the <ordering-information> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

unregister bottom succ
unregister registry


## Usage

The unregister registry command deletes all information used by the registered and polynomial orderings to orient formulas into rewrite rules.

The unregister top and unregister bottom commands remove the listed operators from the top and bottom of the registry used by the registered orderings.

# Forward inference

LP provides mechanisms for proving theorems using both forward and backward inference. Forward inferences produce consequences from LP's logical system. Backward inferences produce subgoals whose proof will suffice to establish a conjecture. LP provides four methods of forward inference, each of which derives consequences from the axioms in LP's logical system.
Normalization
Whenever a new rewrite rule is added to its logical system, LP automatically renormalizes all formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. It discards any formula or rewrite rule that normalizes to true. If all hypotheses of a deduction rule normalize to true, LP replaces the deduction rule by the formulas in its conclusions. If all conclusions of a deduction rule normalize to true, LP discards the deduction rule.

Users can make formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules immune or ancestor-immune to protect them from automatic normalization, both to enhance the performance of LP and to preserve particular forms for use in a proof. Users can also deactivate rewrite rules to prevent them from being applied automatically. The normalize and rewrite commands explicitly apply rewrite rules (whether or not active) to facts (whether or not immune).

Deduction
Whenever a new deduction rule is added to its logical system, LP automatically applies that deduction rule to all formulas and rewrite rules. Likewise, whenever a formula or rewrite rule is normalized, LP automatically applies all deduction rules to the new normal form.

Inactive deduction rules are not used for automatic deduction, and immune formulas and rewrite rules are not subject to automatic deduction. Users can also apply deduction rules explicitly, for example, to immune formulas.

Critical pairs
The computation of critical-pairs and the Knuth-Bendix completion procedure produce consequences from incomplete rewriting systems. It is generally impossible or overly costly to complete a rewriting system. However, the completion procedure can be used to look for inconsistencies in a system, or to perform the final steps in some proofs.

Quantifier elimination
The instantiate command enables users to eliminate universal quantifiers, or to replace free variables by terms, in formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. The fix command enables users to eliminate existential quantifiers in formulas and rewrite rulest to produce a conservative extension of LP's logical system.

# The apply command

The apply command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) deduction rules to (possibly immune) formulas and rewrite rules. It also provides a means of backward inference for finishing the proof of a conjecture.

## Syntax

<apply-command> ::= apply <names> to <target>
<target>        ::= <names> | conjecture


## Examples

apply passive / deduction-rules to *
apply setExtensionality to conjecture


## Usage

The first version of the apply command applies the named deduction rules, whether or not they are active, to the formulas and rewrite rules named as the <target>, whether or not they are immune.

The second version attempts to prove the current conjecture by explicit deduction using the named deduction rules. The attempt succeeds if the current conjecture matches a conclusion of a named deduction rule and the hypotheses of that deduction rule, under the matching substitution, reduce to true. For example, if LP's logical system contains the axioms

setAxioms.1:         e \in (x \U y) -> e \in x \/ e \in y
setExtensionality.1: when \A e (e \in s1 <=> e \in s2) yield s1 = s2

then the command apply setExtensionality to conjecture finishes the proof of the conjecture x \U x = x.

# The complete command

The complete command provides a method of forward inference that extends the critical-pairs command.

## Syntax

<complete-command> ::= complete


## Examples

complete


## Usage

The complete command enlarges LP's logical system by adding consequences of facts already in the system. It operates by computing critical pair equations between rewrite rules in the system, orienting them into new rewrite rules, and iterating this procedure until there are no further nontrivial critical pair equations.

When LP's logical system consists solely of active, nonimmune, quantifier-free equations and rewrite rules, the complete command attempts to transform the logical system into a convergent set of rewrite rules that has the same equational theory. The completion procedure is based on the Peterson and Stickle extension of the Knuth-Bendix completion procedure.

LP terminates the completion procedure if the current conjecture reduces to true.

A convergent rewriting system can be used to prove theorems by normalization using the prove command or to reduce terms to a canonical form using the show normal-form command. The completion-mode setting controls the operation of the completion procedure. You can interrupt and resume the operation of the completion procedure.

# The critical-pairs command

The critical-pairs command provides a method of forward inference that produces consequences from pairs of rewrite rules. This method can be used to increase the amount of confluence in LP's rewriting system.

## Syntax

<critical-pairs-command> ::= critical-pairs <names> with <names>


## Examples

critical-pairs *Hyp with *


## Usage

The critical-pairs command directs LP to compute critical pair equations between the rewrite rules named by the first <names> and those named by the second. LP adds any nontrivial critical pair equations (i.e., nonidentities) to its logical system. If LP reduces the current conjecture to an identity upon orienting a critical pair equation into a rewrite rule, it terminates the critical pair computation. LP performs critical pair computations in the order determined by the combined sizes of the left sides of the rewrite rules.

LP also computes critical pairs in response to the complete command. LP keeps track of which rewrite rules have had their critical pairs computed, and does not recompute critical pairs between those rules. See also the forget command.

Critical pair equations between two rewrite rules result from using them to rewrite a common term in two different ways. Suppose that R1 is the rewrite rule l1 -> r1 and R2 is l2 -> r2. Suppose also that R1 and R2 have no variables in common (LP ensures that this is the case by substituting fresh variables for those in R2). If l2 can be unified with a nonvariable subterm of l1, then both R1 and R2 can be used to rewrite some substitution instance of l1. A critical pair equation between R1 and R2 is an equation relating the results of these two rewritings.

More precisely, if s1 is a nonvariable subterm of l1 that does not contain any variables bound by outer quantifiers in l1, if sigma is a substitution that unifies l2 with s1 and that does not introduce any variables bound by outer quantifiers in l1, and if l1' is the result of substituting r2 for s2 in l1, then sigma(l1') = sigma(r1) is a critical pair equation between R1 and R2.

Examples:

    Rewrite rules                        Critical pair equations

1.  f(x) * f(y)        -> f(x * y)       b * f(y) = f(a * y)
f(a)               -> b              f(x) * b = f(x * a)

2.  P(x) => Q(x)       -> true           true => Q(c) <=> true
P(c)               -> true             ... which reduces to Q(c)

3.  \E x (f(x) = g(y)) -> true           \E x (f(x) = c)
g(c)               -> c

When the principal operator of l1 or l2 is an ac operator, say *, LP generalizes the critical pair computation by computing Petersen-Stickel extensions Ri' having the form li*x -> ri*x of R1 and R2, and then by computing critical pair equations between {R1, R1'} and {R2, R2'}. Thus, i(x) * x -> e has three nontrivial critical pair equations with itself when * is ac:
• i(e) * e = e, which results from unifying i(x) * x with the nonvariable subterm y * z of the left side of i(y) * y * z -> z,

• e * x = i(i(x)) * e, which results from the unifier i(i(x)) * i(x) * x of i(x) * x * y and i(x') * x' * y' (via the map from x' to i(x) and y' to x), and

• e * i(x) = i(x*y) * e * y, which results from the unifier i(x*y) * i(x) * x * y of the same terms (via the map from x' to x*y and y' to i(x)).

# The fix command

The fix command provides a method of forward inference, which can be used to eliminate an existential quantifier from a fact in LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<fix-command> ::= fix <variable> as <term> in <names>


## Examples

fix x as s(0) in *Hyp


## Usage

The fix command eliminates the unique accessible prenex-existential quantifier over the variable from the named facts and substitutes the term for all occurrences of the variable bound by that quantifier. For example, given the formulas
user.1: \E x \A y (f(y) = x)
user.2: \E z (x < z)

the commands fix x as c in user and fix z as bigger(x) in user produce the results
user.1.1: f(y) = c
user.2.1: x < bigger(x)


LP will reject a fix command unless the following conditions are satisfied.

• The named facts must contain exactly one accessible prenex-existential quantifier over the variable (because it is not sound to instantiate two different existential quantifiers by the same term).

• The term must have the form sk(x1, ..., xn), where sk is a function identifier that does not appear in any fact or in the current conjecture, and where x1, ..., xn include all variables that are bound by outer (explicit or implicit) prenex-universal quantifiers in the formula containing the eliminated quantifier. See Skolem function.
LP automatically changes bound variables in the named facts, as needed, to avoid having them bind (or capture) variables that occur free in the term. This action, together with the above two conditions, guarantee that the results constitute a conservative extension to LP's logical system, i.e., that any consequence of the extended system is either a consequence of the original system or contains an occurrence of sk. The last condition prevents unsound derivations such as c ~= c from \E x (x ~= c) or \A y (c = y) from \A y \E x (x = y).

# The instantiate command

The instantiate command provides a method of forward inference, which can be used to substitute terms for free variables, or to eliminate universal quantifiers, from facts in LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<instantiate-command> ::= instantiate (<variable> by <term>)+, in <names>


## Examples

instantiate s2 by s1 \U s1 in setExtensionality
instantiate x by 0, y by 1 in lemmas


## Usage

The instantiate command substitutes (simultaneously) the specified terms for the named free variables in the named formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules; if a named variable does not occur free in a named fact, but is bound by an accessible prenex-universal quantifier in that fact, then that quantifier is eliminated before the substitution is performed. LP automatically changes bound variables in the named facts, if needed, to avoid having them bind (or capture) variables that occur free in the specified terms.

LP normalizes any nonimmune results from an instantiation, discarding those that normalize to true and orienting any resulting formulas into rewrite rules if the automatic-ordering setting is on. The activity and immunity of the results are determined by the current values of the activity and immunity settings. When instantiating a rewrite rule, LP does not use that rule in normalizing the result.

# The normalize command

The normalize command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) rewrite rules to (possibly immune) formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. It also provides a means of backward inference.

## Syntax

<normalize-command> ::= normalize <target> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]
<target>            ::= <names> | conjecture


## Examples

normalize immune / lemmas with *
normalize conjecture with distributiveLaws


## Usage

The first version of the normalize command normalizes the formulas, deduction rules, and rewrite rules in the <target>, whether or not they are immune, using the hardwired rewrite rules together with the rewrite rules obtained as described below. Rewrite rules in the <target> that are also named by <names> are not normalized.

If reversed is present, all named formulas and rewrite rules, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from right to left into legal rewrite rules are used with that orientation. If reversed is not present, all named rewrite rules and formulas, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from left to right are used with that orientation. If no <names> are given, all rewrite rules and left-to-right orientable formulas are used.

The second version of the normalize command normalizes the current conjecture using the rewrite rules obtained as just described.

The normalize command is typically used to open up'' definitions using a set of passive rewrite rules. When reversed is present, the named rewrite rules should ordinarily be passive to prevent them from immediately undoing the result of the normalize command. See also the rewrite command.

# The rewrite command

The rewrite command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) rewrite rules to (possibly immune) formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. It also provides a means of backward inference.

## Syntax

<rewrite-command> ::= rewrite <target> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]


## Examples

rewrite immune / lemmas with *
rewrite conjecture with distributiveLaws


## Usage

The first version of the rewrite command rewrites some term in each of the formulas, deduction rules, and rewrite rules in the <target>, whether or not they are immune, using the hardwired rewrite rules together with the rewrite rules obtained as described below. Rewrite rules in the <target> that are also named by <names> are not rewritten.

If reversed is present, all named formulas and rewrite rules, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from right to left into legal rewrite rules are used with that orientation. If reversed is not present, all named rewrite rules and formulas, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from left to right are used with that orientation. If no <names> are given, all rewrite rules and left-to-right orientable formulas are used.

The second version of the rewrite command rewrites some term in the current conjecture using the rewrite rules obtained as just described.

The rewrite command is typically used to open up'' definitions using a set of passive rewrite rules or to undo an application of a rewrite rule. When reversed is present, the named rewrite rules should ordinarily be passive to prevent them from immediately undoing the result of the rewrite command. See also the normalize command.

# Proofs by consistency

LP permits manual proofs by consistency (also known as proofs by inductionless induction) in logical systems that consist solely of quantifier-free equations and rewrite rules. Such proofs require that the Huet-Hullot principle of definition be satisfied, that is, that all ground (variable-free) terms be equal, with respect to the equations and rewrite rules in the system, to ground terms involving a set of free generators. In axiomatizations of abstract data types, the generators of the data type will usually have this property. Axiomatizations of sets usually fail to satisfy the property because the insert operator is not free.

A proof by consistency proceeds by adding an equation to a complete system and running the completion procedure. If that procedure terminates without generating an inconsistency, then the equation is valid in the initial model; if it terminates with an inconsistency, the equation is not valid; if it does not terminate, the equation may or may not be valid.

# Backward inference

The prove command causes LP to initiate a proof of a conjecture by backward inference. LP provides nine methods of backward inference for proving formulas; in addition, it provides automatic methods of backward inference for proving deduction rules, induction rules, and operator theories. In each method, LP generates a set of subgoals, that is, lemmas to be proved that together are sufficient to imply the conjecture. For some methods, it also generates additional hypotheses that may be used to prove particular subgoals.

Proof by normalization
Normalization rewrites conjectures. If a conjecture normalizes to true, it is a theorem. Otherwise the normalized conjecture becomes the subgoal to be proved.

Proof by cases
A proof by cases divides a proof into specified cases, enabling the conjecture to be rewritten further using the case hypotheses.

Proofs by contradiction provide an indirect method of proof. If LP detects an inconsistency after adding the negation of the conjecture to its logical system, then it concludes that the conjecture is a theorem.

Proof by induction
Proofs by induction are based on the induction rules associated with assertions that some sort is generated by a set of operators or that some binary relation is well founded.

Proof of conditionals
Proofs of conditionals are simplified proofs by cases applicable to conjectures of the form (if t1 then t2 else t3) = t4, where t4 does not begin with if.

Proof of conjunctions
Proofs of conjunctions provide a way to reduce the expense of equational term rewriting when proving conjectures of the form t1 /\ ... /\ tn.

Proof of implications
Proofs of implications are simplified proofs by cases applicable to conjectures of the form t1 => t2.

Proof of logical equivalence
Proofs of logical equivalence are simplified proofs by cases applicable to conjectures of the form t1 <=> t2.

Proof by generalization
Proofs by generalization provide a means of establishing a conjecture that contains a universal quantifier by proving an instance of the conjecture with the quantified variable replaced by an appropriate Skolem constant or function.

Proof by specialization
Proofs by specialization provide a means of establishing a conjecture that contains an existential quantifier by proving an instance of the conjecture with the quantified variable replaced by a particular term.

Proofs using deduction rules
The apply command provides a means of establishing a conjecture that matches the conclusion of a deduction rule.
The proof-methods setting enables users to specify which of these methods of backward inference are applied automatically and in what order.

# Proof methods for formulas

LP provides a variety of methods for proving formulas. Some represent standard proof techniques (proofs by cases, contradiction, induction, and normalization). Two (generalization and specialization) help establish conjectures containing quantifiers. Others assist in proving formulas with particular syntactic forms (implications, logical equivalences, conditionals, and conjunctions).

## Syntax

<proof-method>          ::= <default-proof-method> | cases <term>+,
| generalizing <variable> from <term>
| induction [ [ on <variable> ]
[ depth <number> ] [ [ using ] <names> ]
| specializing ( <variable> to <term> ) +,
<default-proof-method>  ::= /\-method | =>-method | <=>-method | if-method
| explicit-commands | normalization

Note: The first word of the <proof-method> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

=>
cases x < 0, x = 0, x > 0
induction on x


## Usage

Users can specify a method of proof in the prove command that introduces a conjecture, in a subsequent resume command, or in a list of default proof-methods that LP uses when no method is specified in a prove command or when it creates subgoals.

The default method specifies the use of the first applicable proof method in the value of the proof-methods setting. See the individual descriptions of the other proof methods for information about their use.

# Proofs by normalization

LP uses active rewrite rules to normalize conjectures. If a conjecture normalizes to true, it is a theorem. Otherwise, the normalized conjecture becomes the current subgoal to be proved. For example, LP succeeds in proving the conjecture
{e} \subseteq insert(e, s)

from the axioms
{e} = insert(e, {})
e \in insert(e1, x) <=> e = e1 \/ e \in s
{} \subseteq s
insert(e, x) \subseteq y <=> e \in y /\ x \subseteq y

by using them to reduce it to true. But the conjecture x \subseteq x is irreducible, and LP treats it as a subgoal to be proved by some other proof method.

Passive rewrite rules can be applied explicitly to a conjecture by the normalize and rewrite commands. These commands can be used to control when definitions are expanded, or when nonsimplifying rewrite rules (such as distributivity) are applied.

# Proofs by cases

Conjectures can often be simplified by dividing a proof into cases. When a conjecture reduces to true in all cases, it is a theorem. Case analysis has two primary uses. If a conjecture is a theorem, a proof by cases may circumvent a lack of completeness in the rewrite rules. If a conjecture is not a theorem, an attempted proof by cases may simplify the conjecture and make it easier to understand why the proof is not succeeding.

The command prove F by cases F1, ..., Fn directs LP to prove a formula F by division into n cases defined by the formulas F1, ..., Fn (or into two cases, F1 and ~F1 if n = 1). The command resume by cases F1, ..., Fn directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture by division into cases.

A proof by cases involves n+1 subgoals. If n > 1, the first subgoal involves proving F1 \/ ... \/ Fn to show that the cases exhaust all possibilities. If n = 1, LP generates a default second case of ~F1, but does not generate a disjunction as the first subgoal. Then, for each case i, LP generates a subgoal F' and an additional hypothesis Fi' by substituting new constants for the free variables of Fi in both F and Fi. If an inconsistency results from adding a case hypothesis, that case is impossible and the subgoal is vacuously true. Otherwise the subgoal must be shown to follow from the axioms supplemented by the case hypothesis. The names of the case hypotheses have the form <simpleId>CaseHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

In each case of a proof by cases, LP first adds the case hypothesis without using it to reduce the other rewrite rules in the system. Only if this action fails to reduce the desired conclusion to true does LP use the case hypothesis to reduce the other rewrite rules.

Proofs by contradiction provide an indirect method of proof. The command prove F by contradiction directs LP to prove a formula F by deriving an inconsistency from LP's logical system supplemented by the hypothesis ~F', where F' is the result of substituting new constants for the free variables in F. (This hypothesis is logically equivalent to the negation of F because introducing new constants is equivalent to replacing the implicit universal quantifiers by existential quantifiers.) The name of the hypothesis has the form <simpleId>ContraHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

The command resume by contradiction directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture by contradiction.

# Proofs by induction

The command prove F by induction on x using IR directs LP to prove a formula F by induction on the variable x using the named induction rule. The name of the variable and/or that of the induction rule can be omitted if they can be inferred (e.g., because induction is possible on only one variable in F and there is only one induction rule for the sort of that variable). The keyword on is optional. The keyword using can be omitted if the name of a variable is given.

The command resume by induction directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture by induction.

LP supports proofs both by structural and well-founded induction. Induction rules beginning with generated by provide the basis for proofs by structural induction. Induction rules beginning with well founded provide the basis for proofs by well-founded induction.

LP generates appropriate subgoals for each kind of proof by induction. Some of those subgoals introduce additional hypotheses, known as induction hypotheses. The names of the induction hypotheses have the form <simpleId>InductHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

# Proofs by structural induction

A proof of a formula F by structural induction on a variable x of sort S is based on an induction rule that specifies a set G of generators for S, that is, a set of operators with range S. LP generates subgoals for the basis and induction steps in a proof by structural induction, as follows.
• The basis subgoals involve proving the formulas that result from substituting the basis generators in G for x in F. Basis generators are those with no arguments of sort S; fresh variables are used for variables of other sorts, as in {e}.

• LP introduces additional hypotheses for the induction subgoals by substituting one or more new constants for x in F. Each induction subgoal involves proving a formula that results from substituting a nonbasis generator of G (applied to these constants) for x in F (e.g., s(xc) or xc \U xc1).

## Examples

assert sort Nat generated by 0, s
prove 0 + x = x by induction
Basis subgoal:        0 + 0 = 0
New constant:         xc
Induction hypothesis: 0 + xc = xc
Induction subgoal:    0 + s(xc) = s(xc)

assert sort Set generated by {}, {__}, \U
prove x \subseteq x by induction
Basis subgoals:       {} \subseteq {},    {e} \subseteq {e}
New constants:        xc,                 xc1
Induction hypotheses: xc \subseteq xc,    xc1 \subseteq xc1
Induction subgoal:    (xc \U xc1) \subseteq (xc \U xc1)


# Proofs by multilevel induction

The command prove F by induction on x depth n using IR directs LP to prove a formula F by n-level structural induction; by default, n is 1. For example, proving a formula F(x) by depth 2 induction using the induction rule sort Nat generated by 0, s, involves proving two basis subgoals, F(0) and F(s(0)), and one induction subgoal, F(s(s(xc))), given F(xc) and F(s(xc)) as induction hypotheses.

In general, LP constructs the basis and induction steps using the set G of generators for the sort S of x specified by the induction rule IR, as follows.

Definition 1. A (G,F,C)-ground term, where C is a set of constants of sort S, is a quantifier-free term of sort S in which all operators are either in C or are inductive generators in G, no variable has sort S, no variable occurs more than once, and no variable also occurs in F.

Definition 2. A (G,F)-ground term is a (G,F,B)-ground term, where B is the set of basis generators in G.

Definition 3. The depth of a quantifier-free term is 0 if the term consists of a variable; otherwise it is one more than the maximum depth of its arguments.

Definition 4. A (G,F,{c1,...,cm})-ground term is canonical if it contains exactly one occurrence of each of c1, ..., ck for some k <= m.

The basis step involves proving all formulas of the form F(x gets t) where t is an (G,F,B)-ground term of depth at most n.

The induction step introduces a set C = {c1,...,cm} of new constants of sort S, where m is the maximum number of arguments of sort S in a generator in G raised to the power n. The induction step involves proving all formulas of the form F(x gets t), where t is a canonical (G,F,C)-ground term of depth n+1. The induction hypotheses available in the induction step consist of all formulas of the form F(x gets t), where t is a (G,F,C)-ground term of depth at most n.

When n is 1, the induction hypotheses consist of all formulas of the form F(x gets c), where c is in C; and the induction step involves proving all formulas of the form F(x gets t), where t is a canonical (G,F,C)-ground term of depth 2.

Examples:

Gener-  Level   Basis           Induction                 Induction
ators           Subgoals        Hypotheses                Subgoals

0, s      1     f(0)            f(c)                      f(s(c))

0, s      2     f(0)            f(c)                      f(s(s(c)))
f(s(0))         f(s(c))

0, 1, +   1     f(0)            f(c1)                     f(c1+c2)
f(1)            f(c2)

0, 1, +   2     f(0)            f(c1), f(c2)              f(c1+(c2+c3)
f(1)            f(c3), f(c4)              f((c1+c2)+c3)
f(0+0)          f(c1+c1), f(c1+c2), ...   f((c1+c2)+(c3+c4))
f(0+1)          f(c2+c1), f(c2+c2), ...
f(1+0)          f(c3+c1), f(c3+c2), ...
f(1+1)          f(c4+c1), f(c4+c2), ...

nil       1     f(nil)          f(c)                      f(cons(x, c))
cons

nil       2     f(nil)          f(c)                      f(cons(x,cons(y,c))
cons            f(cons(x,nil))  f(cons(x,c))


# Proofs by well-founded induction

To prove a formula F by well-founded induction over a variable x of sort S using a relation R that has been asserted or proved to be well founded, LP generates a single subgoal that involves proving the formula F(xc) using the additional hypothesis R(x, xc) => F(x), where xc is a new constant of sort S.

## Example

assert well founded <
prove 0 + x = x by induction

New constant:         xc
Induction subgoal:    0 + xc = xc
Induction hypothesis: x < xc => 0 + x = x


# Proofs by generalization

The command prove F by generalizing x from t directs LP to prove a formula F by creating a single subgoal in which the unique accessible (explicit or implicit) prenex-universal quantifier over the variable x has been eliminated from F and all occurrences of x bound by that quantifier have been replaced by t.

The command resume by generalizing x from t directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture by this method.

This proof method, which eliminates a universal quantifier from a conjecture, is the dual of the fix command, which eliminates an existential quantifier from a fact. It is subject to restrictions on x and t as for the fix command.

This command is unlikely to be used when F contains free variables other than x. When x is the only free variable in F, the only restriction is that t be a constant that does not occur in F or in any fact in LP's logical system. For example, the command

prove \A x (f(x) = c) by generalizing x from d

is allowed when d is a new constant and reduces the proof of the conjecture to establishing the subgoal f(d) = c. See Skolem-constant.

# Proofs by specialization

The command prove F by specializing x to t directs LP to prove a formula F by creating a single subgoal in which all accessible prenex-existential quantifiers over the variable x have been eliminated from F and all occurrences of x bound by those quantifier have been replaced by t.

The command resume by generalizing x from t directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture by this method.

This proof method, which eliminates existential quantifiers from a conjecture, is the dual of the instantiate command, which eliminates universal quantifiers from facts.

For example, the command

prove \A x \E y (x < y) by specializing y to s(x)

reduces the proof of the conjecture to establishing the subgoal x < s(x).

# Proofs of conjunctions

Proofs of conjunctions can be slow because the operator /\ is associative and commutative, and matching modulo such operators is inherently slow. The command prove t1 /\ ... /\ tn by /\ provides a way to reduce this expense by directing LP to prove each of the conjuncts as a separate subgoal.

The command resume by /\ directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture using this method. It is applicable only when the current conjecture has been reduced to a conjunction.

Users should beware that employing this method too early in a proof can result in lengthening the proof considerably, for example, when the same sequence of commands or the same lemma is needed to prove more than one conjunct.

# Proofs of implications

Proofs of implications can be carried out using a simplified form of a proof by cases. The command
prove t1 => t2 by =>

directs LP to prove the subgoal t2' using the hypothesis t1', where t1' and t2' are obtained as in a proof by cases, that is, by substituting new constants for the free variables of t1 in both t1 and t2. The name of the hypothesis has the form <simpleId>ImpliesHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

For example, given the axioms a => b and b => c, the command prove a => c by => orients the hypothesis a into a rewrite rule a -> true and attempts to prove c as a subgoal. The proof succeeds automatically: LP orients the hypothesis into a rewrite rule a -> true, uses it to normalize the first axiom to b, orients the result into a rewrite rule b -> true, and uses it to normalize the second axiom to c, which establishes the subgoal.

The command resume by => directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture using this method. It is applicable only when the current conjecture has been reduced to an implication.

Users should beware of using the => proof method prematurely, because it causes LP to replace all free variables in the conjecture by constants, which makes it impossible to continue the proof by induction on one of those variables.

# Proofs of logical equivalence

The command prove t1 <=> t2 by <=> directs LP to prove the conjecture by proving two implications, t1 => t2 and t2 => t1. LP substitutes new constants for the free variables in both t1 and t2 to obtain terms t1' and t2', and it creates two subgoals: the first involves proving t2' using t1' as an additional hypothesis, the second proving t1' using t2' as an additional hypothesis. The names of the hypotheses have the form <simpleId>ImpliesHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

The command resume by <=> directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture using this method. It is applicable only when the current conjecture has been reduced to a formula of the form t1 <=> t2 or of the form t1 = t2 when t1 and t2 are boolean-valued terms.

# Proofs of conditionals

Proofs of formulas involving the conditional operator if can be carried out using a simplified proof by cases. The commands
prove if t1 then t2 else t3 by if-method
prove (if t1 then t2 else t3) = t4 by if-method

direct LP to prove the conjectures by division into two cases, t1 and ~t1. LP substitutes new constants for the free variables of t1 in all terms ti to obtain terms ti'. In the first case, it assumes t1' as an additional hypothesis and attempts to prove t2' (or t2' = t4') as a subgoal. In the second case, it assumes t1' = false as an additional hypothesis and attempts to prove t3' (or t3' = t4'). The names of the hypotheses have the form <simpleId>IfHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting.

The command resume by if-method directs LP to resume the proof of the current conjecture using this method. It is applicable only when the current conjecture has been reduced to a formula of the form if t1 then t2 else t3 or of the form (if t1 then t2 else t3) = t4, where t4 does not begin with if.

# Proofs of deduction rules

LP permits users to prove deduction rules as well as assert them. It automatically generates a single subgoal when asked to initiate a proof of a deduction rule. The subgoal involves showing that the conjunction of the hypotheses of the deduction rule implies the conjunction of its conclusions.

For example, the command

prove when \A x:Elem (x \in s:Set <=> x \in t:Set) yield s = t

causes LP to generate a single subgoal which involves proving the formula
\A x:Elem (x \in s:Set <=> x \in t:Set) => s = t


LP also generates a single subgoal when asked to initiate a proof of a partitioned-by. This subgoal is the one associated with the translation of the partitioned-by into a deduction rule.

# Proofs of induction rules

LP permits users to prove induction rules as well as assert them. To prove a structural induction rule such as
sort Set generated by {}, {__}, \U

LP creates a single subgoal that involves proving the formula isGenerated(x) using the hypotheses
isGenerated({})
isGenerated({e})
isGenerated(s1) /\ isGenerated(s2) => isGenerated(s1 /\ s2)

where isGenerated is a new operator with signature Set->Bool. The names of the hypotheses have the form <simpleId>GenHyp.<number>, where <simpleId> is the current value of the name-prefix setting. User guidance is generally required to finish the proof, for example, by using the induction rule sort Set generated by {}, insert.

To prove a structural induction rule such as

sort Nat generated freely by 0:->Nat, f:Nat->Nat, g:Nat->Nat

LP also attempts to prove the subgoals
f(n) ~= 0          f(n) = f(n1) <=> n = n1          f(n) ~= g(n1)
g(n) ~= 0          g(n) = g(n1) <=> n = n1

in addition to the subgoal isGenerated(n).

To prove a well-founded induction rule such as well founded <, LP creates a single subgoal that involves proving the formula isGenerated(x) using the hypothesis

\A n1 (n1 < n => isGenerated(n1)) => isGenerated(n)


# Proofs of operator theories

LP permits users to prove operator theories as well as assert them. Proving that an operator + is commutative involves proving a single subgoal consisting of the formula x + y = y + x. Proving that an operator is associative-commutative involves proving an additional subgoal consisting of the formula x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.

# Proofs by explicit commands

The special proof method explicit-commands directs LP not to apply any method of backward inference automatically to a conjecture, but to wait for an explicit method to be given with a subsequent resume command. This method is useful in several situations.
• It can be used to prevent LP from attempting to normalize a conjecture when it would be time-consuming and unfruitful to do so. For example, if a conjecture includes many conjuncts, it may be appropriate to first compute some critical pairs, then apply the /\-method, and finally normalize the individual subgoals.

• It can be used to delay the start of a proof until the user has had an opportunity to make the conjecture immune, so that it is not reduced once it has been proved.

# The apply command

The apply command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) deduction rules to (possibly immune) formulas and rewrite rules. It also provides a means of backward inference for finishing the proof of a conjecture.

## Syntax

<apply-command> ::= apply <names> to <target>
<target>        ::= <names> | conjecture


## Examples

apply passive / deduction-rules to *
apply setExtensionality to conjecture


## Usage

The first version of the apply command applies the named deduction rules, whether or not they are active, to the formulas and rewrite rules named as the <target>, whether or not they are immune.

The second version attempts to prove the current conjecture by explicit deduction using the named deduction rules. The attempt succeeds if the current conjecture matches a conclusion of a named deduction rule and the hypotheses of that deduction rule, under the matching substitution, reduce to true. For example, if LP's logical system contains the axioms

setAxioms.1:         e \in (x \U y) -> e \in x \/ e \in y
setExtensionality.1: when \A e (e \in s1 <=> e \in s2) yield s1 = s2

then the command apply setExtensionality to conjecture finishes the proof of the conjecture x \U x = x.

# The cancel command

The cancel command enables users to abort proofs or to change proof methods.

## Syntax

<cancel-command> ::= cancel [ all | lemma ]


## Examples

cancel
cancel all
cancel lemma


## Usage

The cancel command without either modifier cancels the proof of the current conjecture and suspends work on other proofs until an explicit
resume command is issued. If the current conjecture is a subgoal for proving a formula, LP pops the proof stack back to the parent of the subgoal and sets its proof method to default; if it is a subgoal for a nonformula (e.g., for an induction rule), LP also cancels the proof of the parent of the subgoal.

The command cancel all cancels the proofs of all conjectures.

The command cancel lemma cancels the proof of the conjecture introduced by the last prove command, together with the proofs of all subgoals introduced by LP during the proof of that conjecture.

# The normalize command

The normalize command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) rewrite rules to (possibly immune) formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. It also provides a means of backward inference.

## Syntax

<normalize-command> ::= normalize <target> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]
<target>            ::= <names> | conjecture


## Examples

normalize immune / lemmas with *
normalize conjecture with distributiveLaws


## Usage

The first version of the normalize command normalizes the formulas, deduction rules, and rewrite rules in the <target>, whether or not they are immune, using the hardwired rewrite rules together with the rewrite rules obtained as described below. Rewrite rules in the <target> that are also named by <names> are not normalized.

If reversed is present, all named formulas and rewrite rules, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from right to left into legal rewrite rules are used with that orientation. If reversed is not present, all named rewrite rules and formulas, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from left to right are used with that orientation. If no <names> are given, all rewrite rules and left-to-right orientable formulas are used.

The second version of the normalize command normalizes the current conjecture using the rewrite rules obtained as just described.

The normalize command is typically used to open up'' definitions using a set of passive rewrite rules. When reversed is present, the named rewrite rules should ordinarily be passive to prevent them from immediately undoing the result of the normalize command. See also the rewrite command.

# The prove command

The prove command initiates the proof of a conjecture.

## Syntax

<prove-command> ::= prove <assertion> [ by <proof-method> ]


## Examples

prove e \in {e}
prove i * (j + k) = (i * j) + (i * k) by induction on i
prove sort Set generated by {}, insert


## Usage

The prove command initiates an attempt to prove a conjectured assertion using the specified method. If no method is specified, LP uses the one determined by the current value of the proof-methods setting. LP assigns a name to the conjecture using the current name-prefix setting, unless the assertion begins with :<simpleId>:, in which case LP uses that identifier as the name-prefix for the assertion. If and when the proof of a conjecture succeeds, LP adds the conjecture to its logical system and uses it as if it had been asserted by the assert command. The activity and immunity of the conjecture, however, are determined when it is introduced by a prove command, not when it is proved; these attributes can be changed using the make command.

LP maintains a stack of proof contexts for conjectures whose proofs are not yet complete. Each proof context consists of a conjecture, a logical system of facts available for the proof, and values for the local settings that govern the proof. The conjecture in the topmost proof context on the stack is known as the current conjecture.

The prove command pushes a new proof context on top of the stack. Certain proof methods create subgoals for proving a conjecture. LP associates a separate proof context with each subgoal, and it adds appropriate additional facts, called hypotheses, to the logical system in that proof context.

The user can cancel the proof of a conjecture with the cancel command, which pops the stack of proof contexts. Or the user can resume the proof of the current conjecture with the resume command (for example, to specify a new method of proof or after proving a lemma). Whenever a proof succeeds or is canceled, LP pops the stack of proof contexts, restores its logical system and settings to those in effect before work began on the conjecture (thereby discarding any lemmas proved while working on the conjecture), adds the conjecture to the system if it was proved, and resumes work on the new current conjecture. As soon as LP can establish the current conjecture, it terminates any forward inference mechanisms (such as internormalization of the rewriting system or the computation of critical-pair equations) that may be in progress.

# The qed command

The qed command constitutes a claim that all proofs are finished.

## Syntax

<qed-command> ::= qed


## Examples

qed


## Usage

The qed command checks that the proof stack is empty. If it is not, LP prints an error message and halts
execution of all .lp files.

# The resume command

The resume command allows the user to resume work on the current conjecture.

## Syntax

<presume-command> ::= resume [ by <proof-method> ]


## Examples

resume by induction on i
resume by cases x < 0, x = 0, x > 0


## Usage

The resume command resumes work on the current conjecture using the specified method. If no method is specified, LP uses the method in effect when the proof was suspended.

# The rewrite command

The rewrite command provides manual control over the application of (possibly passive) rewrite rules to (possibly immune) formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules. It also provides a means of backward inference.

## Syntax

<rewrite-command> ::= rewrite <target> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]


## Examples

rewrite immune / lemmas with *
rewrite conjecture with distributiveLaws


## Usage

The first version of the rewrite command rewrites some term in each of the formulas, deduction rules, and rewrite rules in the <target>, whether or not they are immune, using the hardwired rewrite rules together with the rewrite rules obtained as described below. Rewrite rules in the <target> that are also named by <names> are not rewritten.

If reversed is present, all named formulas and rewrite rules, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from right to left into legal rewrite rules are used with that orientation. If reversed is not present, all named rewrite rules and formulas, whether or not they are active, that can be oriented from left to right are used with that orientation. If no <names> are given, all rewrite rules and left-to-right orientable formulas are used.

The second version of the rewrite command rewrites some term in the current conjecture using the rewrite rules obtained as just described.

The rewrite command is typically used to open up'' definitions using a set of passive rewrite rules or to undo an application of a rewrite rule. When reversed is present, the named rewrite rules should ordinarily be passive to prevent them from immediately undoing the result of the rewrite command. See also the normalize command.

# The box and diamond commands

A [] (box) or a <> (diamond) appearing as the first nonblank characters of an input line begins a checkable comment, which LP uses to ensure that replayed proofs do not diverge from the way users expect them to proceed.

## Syntax

<diamond-command> ::= <> <character>*
<box-command>     ::= [] <character>*


## Examples

<> induction step
[] induction step


## Usage

LP generates []'s and <>'s in the
history and script files. Users generally copy the <> and [] annotations supplied by LP into their command files rather than attempt to generate these annotations themselves. LP generates a <> whenever it introduces a subgoal in a proof, and it generates a [] whenever it finishes the proof of a subgoal or of a conjecture. After a successful proof, the number of []'s in the history and script file equals the number of prove commands plus the number of <>'s.

LP checks <>'s and []'s when it executes commands from a .lp file and the box-checking setting is on. Whenever it generates a <> or a [], LP checks that the next nonblank line in the .lp file contains a corresponding <> or [] command. The special LP prompts <>? and []? indicate that LP expects a confirming <> or [] in the .lp file. LP prints an error message if the confirming <> or [] is missing, or if an unexpected <> or [] appears in the .lp file.

Regardless of whether box-checking is on or off, LP does not copy <> and [] commands from its input to the history or to a script file. Instead, it puts into the history and script file the <> and [] commands that it produces as it creates and discharges subgoals. Thus, the history and the script file will be annotated in a way that correctly reflects the actual progress of the proof.

# Command summary

LP is a command-driven system. Commands can be entered in upper, lower, or mixed case. They, and some of their arguments, can be abbreviated by unambiguous prefixes of their hyphen-separated components. LP prompts users for any missing arguments that it requires to execute a command. The syntax of each command is illustrated and described more fully in the description for that command.

## Commands for creating axioms and facts

assert <assertion>+; [ ; ]
Assert axioms
declare operators <opdec>+[,]
Declare operators
declare sorts <sort>+,
Declare sorts
declare variables <vardec>+[,]
Declare variables
make <fact-status> ( <names> | conjecture )
Change the activity or immunity of facts or conjecture

## Forward inference commands

apply <names> to <names>
Apply the named deduction rules to the named facts
complete
Run the Knuth-Bendix completion procedure
critical-pairs <names> with <names>
Find critical pair equations between each rewrite rule in the first named set and each in the second
fix <variable> as <term> in <names>
Eliminate one existential quantifier in the named facts, replacing the quantified variable by a term
instantiate ( <variable> by <term> )+, in <names>
Instantiate variables and/or eliminate universal quantifiers in the named facts, replacing the free and quantified variables by the terms
normalize <names> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]
Normalize the named facts using the (reversals of the) hardwired and named rewrite rules
rewrite <names> [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]
Rewrite some subterm of each named fact using a hardwired or (the reversal of) a named rewrite rule

## Backward inference commands

apply <names> to conjecture
Attempt to prove the current conjecture using the named deduction rules
cancel [ all | lemma ]
Cancel the current conjecture [and others]
normalize conjecture [ with <names> ]
Normalize the current conjecture using all hardwired and named rewrite rules
prove <conjecture> [ by <proof-method> ]
Attempt to prove the conjecture using <proof-method>
qed
Check that all conjectures have been proved
resume [ by <proof-method> ]
Resume work on the current conjecture using <proof-method>
rewrite conjecture [ with [ reversed ] <names> ]
Rewrite some subterm of the current conjecture using some hardwired or named rewrite rule
<>
Confirm the start of a subgoal in a proof
[]
Confirm the conclusion of a step in proof

## Commands for user interaction

clear
Discard all information except global settings
delete <names>
Delete the named facts
define-class $<class> <names> Define an abbreviation for <names> display [ <information-type> ] [ <names> ] Print information about the named facts execute <file> Execute commands from <file>.lp execute-silently <file> Same as execute, but suppressing all output forget [ pairs ] Discard information to save space freeze <file> Save the state of LP in <file>.lpfrz help <topic> Print help about the topics history [ <number> | all ] Print a history of [the <number> most recent] commands pop-settings Restore the values of local LP settings push-settings Remember the values of local LP settings quit, q Exit from LP set Print the current values of all LP settings set <setting-name> Print the current value of a setting and prompt for a new value set <setting-name> <setting-value> Change the value of a setting show normal-form <term> Display the reduction of a term to normal form show unifiers <term>, <term> Display all unifiers of two terms statistics [ <statistics-option> ] Print statistics on runtime, storage, and rule usage stop Stop execution of command files thaw <file> Restore a frozen state from <file>.lpfrz unset [ <setting> | all ] Reset setting to its default value version Display information about the current version of LP write <file> [ <names> ] Write the registry and the named facts to <file>.lp % <comment> Record a comment in the log and/or script file ## Commands to control ordering order [ <names> ] Orient the named formulas into rewrite rules register <ordering-constraints> Provide constraints for orienting formulas unorder [ <names> ] Turn the named rewrite rules back into formulas unregister <ordering-information> Cancel the constraints for orienting formulas # The clear command The clear command resets the entire state of LP. ## Syntax <clear-command> ::= clear  ## Examples clear  ## Usage The clear command causes LP to discard all information except for the values of the global settings. # The comment command The comment command provides a way for users to annotate scripts and logs. ## Syntax <comment-command> ::= % <string>  ## Examples % Axioms for finite sets  ## Usage LP ignores all input from the character (%) introducing a comment to the end of the line. These characters appear in any script or log file active at the time of the command, but do not otherwise affect LP's operation. # The define-class command The define-class command introduces an abbreviation for a set of named facts. This abbreviation can be used wherever <names> are required as an argument to a command. ## Syntax <define-class-command> ::= define-class <class-name> [ <names> ]  ## Examples define-class$facts nat, set
define-class $facts1 copy($facts)
define-class $old eval(*)  ## Usage The define-class command defines <class-name> as an abbreviation for <names>. If no <names> are specified, the command prints the current definition of <class-name>. The examples define the following abbreviations: •$facts is an abbreviation for nat, set. The command display $facts is equivalent to the command display nat, set. •$facts1 is also an abbreviation for nat, set. Without the copy operation, it would be an abbreviation for $facts, whose meaning would change if$facts was redefined.

• $old is an abbreviation for the list of names of all facts in LP's logical system when the define-class command was executed; the eval operation forces the evaluation of its argument *. The command display$old displays the current forms of any of those facts that are still in LP's logical system when the display command is executed.

# The delete command

The delete command discards facts from LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<delete-command> ::= delete <names>


## Examples

delete rewrite-rules
delete myLemma, junk


## Usage

The delete command deletes the named facts from the system. It can be used to get rid of unhelpful facts (e.g., unorderable or unnecessary critical-pair equations) or facts that have served their purpose and are no longer needed.

# The display command

The display command displays information about LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<display-command>  ::= display [ <information-type> ] [ <names> ]
<information-type> ::= classes | conjectures | facts | names
| ordering-constraints | proof-status | symbols


## Examples

display
display *Hyp
display ordering-constraints contains-operator(+)


## Usage

The display command displays information of the requested <information-type> about all facts and conjectures with names matching <names>. If <information-type> is omitted, it is assumed to be facts.
display classes
Displays the definitions of all <class-name>s.

display conjectures [ <names> ]
Displays all unproved conjectures [with the specified names].

display facts [ <names> ]
Displays all facts in the current proof context [with the specified names]. Indicates immune facts by an (I) following their names, ancestor-immune statements by an (i), and passive facts by a (P).

display names
Displays all name-prefixes introduced in the current proof context.

display ordering-constraints [ <names> ]
Displays the registry for all operators [in the named facts] in the current proof context, unless the value of the ordering-method setting is polynomial, in which case it displays the polynomial interpretations of these operators.

display proof-status
Displays the status of the current conjecture and all other conjectures for which it is a subgoal (of a subgoal ...).

display symbols [ <names> ]
Displays all sorts, operators, and variables [in the named facts] in the current proof context. The command display symbols displays all symbols in the current proof context, whereas display symbols * only displays those that occur in some fact.

# The execute command

The execute command causes LP to execute commands from a specified file.

## Syntax

<execute-command> ::= ( execute | execute-silently ) <file>
<file>            ::= <blank-free-string>


## Examples

execute myProof


## Usage

The execute command causes LP to execute the commands in the file named <file>.lp (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lp) on the current LP search path. The execute command is ordinarily used to execute commands from a file that was created by the set script or write commands, but any text file may be specified.

Further execute commands may occur in .lp files, but recursive .lp files are not allowed. Once a .lp file has been exhausted, LP resumes accepting input from the previous .lp file or from the user if no other file is being executed. If LP encounters an error while executing a file, or if the user interrupts LP, LP takes subsequent input from the terminal.

The execute-silently command is just like execute, except that it produces no output.

# The forget command

## Syntax

<forget-command> ::= forget [ pairs ]

Note: The argument of the forget command can be abbreviated.

## Examples

forget


## Usage

The forget command causes LP to discard all information about which critical pairs have already been computed in the current proof context. It also prevents LP from accumulating further such information in the current proof context, and in all subsequently created subcontexts, until the next complete command is given.

The forget command can save significant space when there are many rewrite rules. It is useful when we are interested proving conjectures without appealing to the critical-pairs or complete commands.

# The freeze and thaw commands

The freeze and thaw commands enable LP to save and restore its state.

## Syntax

<freeze-command> ::= (freeze | freeze-current) <file>
<thaw-command>   ::= thaw <file>


## Examples

freeze case1
thaw case1


## Usage

The freeze command saves LP's entire state, excluding the statistics and global settings, but including all proof contexts, in the file named <file>.lpfrz (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lpfrz) in LP's current working directory. If a file with that name already exists, its previous contents are erased; if it does not exist, it is created.

The freeze-current command does the same, except that it only saves the state of the current proof context. This command is faster and uses less disk space than the freeze command. It is useful primarily for trying different strategies for proving the current conjecture.

The thaw command restores the state of LP from that saved previously using the freeze command in the file named <file>.lpfrz (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lpfrz) on the current LP search path. The thaw command will not thaw files that were frozen using an out-of-date version of LP.

These commands are useful for checkpointing attempted proofs. They are also useful for saving and restoring completed or partially-completed systems.

• Forgetting information to save space before a freeze
• Writing commands into a file to recreate the current proof context

# The help command

The help command provides information about the use of LP. This same information can also be viewed using a hypertext reader such as Mosaic, starting at the home page in ~lp/help/overview.html.

## Syntax

<help-command> ::= help <topic>
<topic>        ::= <blank-free-string>


## Examples

help ?
help commands


## Usage

The help command provides a detailed explanation of the requested topic, which can be specified by an unambiguous prefix. The command help ? produces a terse list of topics for which help is available. The command help commands produces a summary of the LP commands. The command help lp produces a list of general topics for which help is available.

If you don't get information on the topic you expected after typing a command like help rewrite, try typing help rewrite- to see if there is further information about related topics (e.g., rewrite-command or rewrite-rule).

# The history command

The history command produces a list of the commands executed by LP.

## Syntax

<history-command> ::= history [ <number> | all ]


## Examples

history
history 10
history all


## Usage

When supplied with an argument, the history command prints a list of the <number> most recent commands executed by LP or of all commands executed by LP. When not supplied with an argument, it behaves in the same fashion as the last history command (or as history all if it is the first history command).

LP annotates the history by commenting out erroneous commands, by marking the beginning and end of executed files, by marking the creation of subgoals and the completion of proofs, and by indenting the history to reveal its proof structure.

After a thaw command, LP's current history is replaced by the history that led to the corresponding freeze. Thus a script file provides a record of the commands executed during the current LP session, and the history provides a record of commands that will recreate LP's current state.

Users who want a script that will recreate LP's current state, but who have forgotten to issue a set script command, can issue a set log command instead followed by a history all command to capture the script in the log file.

# The push-settings and pop-settings commands

The push-settings and pop-settings commands save and restore the values of the settings that control LP's operation.

## Syntax

<push-settings-command> ::= push-settings
<pop-settings-command>  ::= pop-settings


## Examples

push-settings
pop-settings


## Usage

The push-settings command saves the current values of all
local settings by pushing them on a stack. The pop-settings command restores the values of these settings by popping them off the stack.

The write command places the push-settings and pop-settings commands in .lp files so that named axioms can be loaded from these files without affecting the current name-prefix, activity, and immunity settings.

# The quit command

The quit command causes LP to terminate.

## Syntax

<quit-command> ::= quit | q


## Examples

quit


## Usage

The quit command causes LP to halt, returning the user to the operating system. Any
script or log file is closed.

# The set command

The set command controls various aspects of LP's behavior.

## Syntax

<set-command>  ::= set [ <setting-name> [ <setting-value> ] ]
<setting-name> ::= activity | automatic-ordering | automatic-registry
| box-checking | completion-mode | directory
| display-mode | hardwired-usage | immunity
| log-file | lp-path | name-prefix | ordering-method
| page-mode | prompt | proof-methods
| reduction-strategy | rewriting-limit | script-file
| statistics-level | trace-level | write-mode
<setting-value> ::= <string>

Note: The setting-name can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set
set proof-methods
set script session


## Usage

The set command with no arguments prints the current values of all settings. The set command with a <setting-name> and no <setting-value> displays the current value of the setting and then requests a new value; responding with a carriage return leaves the value of the setting unchanged. The set command with both a <setting-name> and a <setting-value> sets the value of one of the following settings.

Settings marked with (L) are local to the current proof context. If such a setting is changed, for example, during the proof of one case in a proof by cases it reverts to its previous value upon termination of that case in the proof. Settings marked with G are global and remain in effect until changed by the user. All settings have default values, which can be restored by the unset command.

(L) activity ( on | off )
New assertions are active if on (the default).
(L) automatic-ordering ( on | off )
Formulas are oriented automatically into rewrite rules if on (the default).
(L) automatic-registry ( on | off )
The registry is extended automatically during ordering if on (the default).
(G) box-checking ( on | off )
Markings (<>, []) for proof steps are checked in command files if on (the default).
(L) completion-mode ( big | expert | standard )
Controls the action of the complete command (default standard).
(G) directory <file>
Output files are created in this directory (default ".").
(L) display-mode ( qualified | unqualified | unambiguous )
Controls the qualification of identifiers and terms by the display command (default unambiguous).
(L) hardwired-usage <number>
Turns off some hardwired rules.
(L) immunity ( on | off | ancestor )
Controls the immunity of new assertions (default off).
(G) log-file <file>
Creates file <file>.lplog for log of session (default none).
(G) lp-path <string>
Defines search path for help, .lp, .lpfrz files (default . ~/lp).
(L) name-prefix <simpleId>
Defines prefix for names of assertions, conjectures (default user).
(L) ordering-method <ordering>
Defines method for orienting formulas into rewrite rules (default noeq-dsmpos).
(G) page-mode ( on | off )
Output is paged if on (default off).
(G) prompt <string>
Defines LP's command prompt (default LP! ').
(L) proof-methods <default-proof-method>+[,]
Defines list of default proof methods for conjectured formulas (default normalization).
(L) reduction-strategy ( inside-out | outside-in )
Controls application of rewrite rules to terms (default outside-in).
(L) rewriting-limit <number>
Bounds number of steps in possibly infinite rewrites (default 1000).
(G) script-file <file>
Creates file <file>.lpscr for record of input (default none).
(G) statistics-level <number>
Controls the kinds of statistics kept by LP (default 2).
(G) trace-level <number>
Controls the amount of detailed output produced by LP (default 1).
(L) write-mode ( qualified | unqualified | unambiguous )
Controls the qualification of identifiers and terms by the write command (default qualified).

# The activity setting

LP automatically uses all active rewrite rules for normalization and all active deduction rules for deduction. By contrast, it uses passive facts only upon explicit user command. The activity of newly asserted or conjectured facts is governed by the activity setting. The activity of previously asserted or conjectured facts can be changed by the make command. Unless instructed otherwise, LP treats all facts as active.

## Syntax

<set-activity-command> ::= set activity ( on | off )


## Examples

set activity off


## Usage

The activity setting applies to facts and conjectures created by the
apply, assert, critical-pairs, fix, instantiate, and prove commands in the current proof context. Such facts are active if the setting is on (the default) and passive (or inactive) if it is off. Passive facts are indicated by a parenthesized letter (P) in the output of the display command.

LP automatically uses all active rewrite rules to reduce terms to normal form, and it automatically uses all active deduction rules to deduce consequences from formulas and rewrite rules. LP does not make automatic use of passive facts. Instead, LP applies passive rewrite rules only in response to the normalize or rewrite commands, and it applies passive deduction rules only in response to the apply command.

Facts retain their activity or passivity when they are normalized, and formulas retain their activity or passivity when oriented into rewrite rules. Likewise, passive conjectures remain passive when proved.

There are two main uses for passive facts in LP.

• Users can improve the performance of LP by declaring facts to be passive when they are known to be inapplicable. When LP subsequently adds new formulas to the system, it will not attempt to reduce them by passive rules or to apply passive deduction rules to them.

• Users can control the application of problematic rewrite and deduction rules by declaring them to be passive. For example, users may wish to apply a complete set of boolean reductions when they believe it will simplify a formula (e.g., to true), but they may be reluctant to have LP apply those reductions automatically to all formulas (lest the reductions produce large, unreadable intermediate forms).

# The automatic-ordering setting

The automatic-ordering setting controls whether LP orients formulas into rewrite rules with or without the user having to issue an explicit order command.

## Syntax

<set-automatic-ordering-command> ::= set automatic-ordering ( on | off )


## Examples

set auto-ord off


## Usage

If automatic-ordering is on (the default), then LP attempts to orient all formulas (asserted axioms, proved conjectures, results of deductions, instantiations, critical pair equations, and hypotheses for subgoals in proofs) automatically into rewrite rules. If it is off, then the user must issue an explicit order command to orient formulas into rewrite rules. The value of this setting is local to the current proof context.

# The automatic-registry setting

The automatic-registry setting controls whether LP asks the user to confirm extensions to the registry when formulas are oriented into rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<set-automatic-registry-command> ::= set automatic-registry ( on | off )


## Examples

set auto-reg off


## Usage

If automatic-registry is on (the default), then LP automatically extends its registry, if necessary, when using a
registered ordering to orient formulas into rewrite rules. If it is off, LP prompts the user to select one of a list of possible extensions whenever the registry must be extended. When it is off, LP also gives users the opportunity to divide incompatible equations and to orient formulas manually.

# The box-checking setting

The box-checking setting governs whether or not LP checks for the presence of annotations marking the beginning and end of proofs steps in files being executed by the execute command.

## Syntax

<set-box-checking-command> ::= set box-checking ( on | off )


## Examples

set box on


## Usage

LP checks <>'s and []'s when it
executes commands from a .lp file and box-checking is on. It ignores these annotations when box-checking is off.

See the box and diamond commands for details.

# The completion-mode setting

The completion-mode setting sets the operating mode for the completion procedure.

## Syntax

<set-completion-mode-command> ::= set completion-mode <completion-mode>
<completion-mode>             ::= standard | expert | big

Note: The <completion-mode> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set completion-mode expert


## Usage

The completion-mode setting affects the order in which completion tasks are executed in the current proof context. It also affects the amount of user interaction during the completion procedure.
• The standard mode (the default) computes critical pair equations before extending the registry. When the automatic-registry setting is off, this reduces the amount of interaction required from the user to extend the registry; however, it can be inefficient.

• The expert mode gives higher priority to orienting formulas into rewrite rules than to computing critical pair equations. When the automatic-registry setting is off, this gives the user more explicit control over the completion process by prompting for guidance more often. In particular, user interaction to order unordered formulas is requested before the system attempts to compute new critical pairs.

• The big mode postpones the computation of critical pairs even farther, so that big formulas are examined before critical pairs are computed.

# The directory setting

The directory setting sets the working directory for LP.

## Syntax

<set-directory-command> ::= set directory <file>


## Examples

set directory ~/proofs


## Usage

The working directory for LP is the directory in which it creates files in response to the freeze, set log, set script, and write commands. A period (.) in the setting of lp-path refers to this directory.

The default working directory is the directory in which LP was invoked. The set directory command changes the working directory in all proof contexts.

# The display-mode setting

The display-mode setting controls the manner in which the display command outputs identifiers and terms.

## Syntax

<set-display-command> ::= set display-mode <qualification-mode>
<qualification-mode>  ::= qualified | unambiguous | unqualified

Note: The <qualification-mode> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set display-mode qualified


## Usage

The display-mode setting controls the ouput of identifiers and terms by the display command in the current proof context.
display-mode       effect
------------       ------
qualified          print qualifications for all subterms, identifiers
unqualified        print no qualifications
unambiguous        print enough qualifications to enable reparsing

The default display-mode is unambiguous.

# The hardwired-usage setting

The hardwired-usage setting provides users with limited control over LP's use of hardwired rewrite and deduction rules.

## Syntax

<set-hardwired-usage-command> ::= set hardwired-usage <number>


## Examples

set hardwired-usage 8


## Usage

LP hardwires selected rewrite rules for the logical and conditional operators. For debugging purposes, the set hardwired-usage command can be used to turn off some of these hardwired rewrite rules in the current proof context. The following powers of 2, if they occur in the binary representation of <number>, turn off the indicated rule.
2
Turns off the rewrite rule x => false -> ~x
4
Turns off the rewrite rule x <=> false -> ~x, but adds the rewrite rule x <=> y <=> ~y -> ~x.
8
Turns off the rewrite rules with left side if x then y else z when y or z is true or false
16
Turns off the if-simplification metarule

# The immunity setting

LP automatically subjects all nonimmunized facts in its logical system to normalization and deduction. By contrast, it subjects immune facts to these operations only upon explicit user command. The immunity of newly asserted or conjectured facts is governed by the immunity setting. The immunity of previously asserted or conjectured facts can be changed by the make command. Unless instructed otherwise, LP does not treat any fact as immune.

## Syntax

<set-immunity-command> ::= set immunity ( on | off | ancestor )

Note: The immunity setting can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set immunity on


## Usage

The immunity setting applies to facts and conjectures created by the apply, assert, critical-pairs, fix, instantiate, and prove commands in the current proof context. Such facts are immune if the setting is on, nonimmune if it is off, and ancestor-immune if it is ancestor. Immune facts are indicated by a parenthesized letter (I) in the output of the display command; ancestor-immune facts are indicated by (i).

LP automatically reduces all terms in nonimmune formulas, rewrite rules, and deduction rules to normal form, and it automatically applies all active deduction rules to all nonimmune formulas and rewrite rules. LP behaves differently, however, with respect to immune and ancestor-immune facts.

• LP does not automatically reduce immune facts to normal form, and it does not automatically apply deduction rules to them. Instead, LP reduces them only in response to the normalize or rewrite commands, and it uses them for deduction only in response to the apply command.

• LP does not automatically reduce an ancestor-immune fact by any ancestor of that fact, and it does not automatically apply a deduction rule that is an ancestor of a fact to that fact. One fact is an ancestor of another if its name is a prefix of the other's. Thus, if rewrite rule a.1.2.3 is ancestor-immune, it will not be reduced by rewrite rule a.1.2 (from which it may have been obtained by instantiation), and it will not have deduction rule a.1 (from which a.1.2 may have been obtained by instantiation) applied to it.
Facts retain their immunity when they are normalized, and formulas retain their immunity when oriented into rewrite rules. Likewise, immune conjectures may be reduced during an attempt to prove them, but are added to the system as immune facts in their original form when proved.

There are several reasons to make facts immune or ancestor-immune in LP.

• Immune facts retain their original form and may be more readable than reduced versions of those facts.

• Immune rewrite rules may be useful in critical-pair computations.

• Setting immunity on or to ancestor makes it possible to preserve instantiations that might otherwise normalize to identities.

• Users can improve the performance of LP by declaring facts to be immune when they are known to be irreducible. When LP subsequently adds new rewrite rules to the system, it will not attempt to reduce the immune facts using these rules.

However, there are also disadvantages to making too many rules immune.

• The presence of immune rules can degrade the performance of LP, because additional rewrite rules increase the cost of normalization. It can also increase the amount of nonconfluence in a rewriting system.

• An immune deduction rule with a reducible hypothesis may not match formulas as expected, because the deduction rule is applied only after the formulas have been normalized.

# The log-file setting

The log-file setting provides a means of recording the current LP session in a file.

## Syntax

<set-log-file-command> ::= set log-file <file>


## Examples

set log session


## Usage

The set log command causes LP to start recording the terminal session in a file named <file>.lplog (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lplog) in LP's current working directory. Any previous contents of this log file are lost. If LP was already logging to a file, that file is closed before opening the new log file. Logging is ended by the quit or unset log commands.

# The lp-path setting

The lp-path setting specifies a list of directories for LP to search when looking for input from a file.

## Syntax

<set-lp-path-command> ::= set lp-path <string>


## Examples

set lp-path . ~/myAxioms ~lp


## Usage

The set lp-path command specifies a search path for LP to use when looking for help, .lp, or .lpfrz files. Its default value is ". ~lp/axioms". A period (.) in the value of lp-path refers to LP's current working directory. A tilde (~) in the value of lp-path refers to the user's home directory. An initial directory ~lp refers to the directory in which LP's runtime support was installed; see the installation instructions, the command-line options, and the version command for the location of this directory.

# The name-prefix setting

The name-prefix setting specifies the identifier used to construct names for newly asserted facts and conjectures.

## Syntax

<set-name-prefix-command> ::= set name-prefix <simpleId>


## Examples

set name nat


## Usage

The set name-prefix command directs LP to use the <simpleId> as the prefix for any new names generated in the current proof context. After a command such set name nat, LP assigns the names nat.1, nat.2, ... in sequence to facts and conjectures.

# The ordering-method setting

The ordering-method setting specifies the method used to orient formulas into rewrite rules.

## Syntax

<set-ordering-method-command> ::= set ordering-method <ordering>
<ordering>                    ::= <registered-ordering>
| either-way | left-to-right
| manual | polynomial [ <number> ]
<registered-ordering>         ::= dsmpos | noeq-dsmpos

Note: The <ordering> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set ordering dsmpos
set ordering polynomial 2


## Usage

The set ordering-method command sets the method used to orient formulas into rewrite rules in the current proof context. The methods based on the registered and polynomial orderings attempt to guarantee that the resulting set of rewrite rules is terminating. The other brute-force orderings give users more control over the direction in which equations are oriented into rewrite rules, but they do not guarantee termination. The registered orderings are the easiest to use. The default ordering method is noeq-dsmpos.

When a set of rewrite rules is known to terminate (because of the ordering used to orient them), but the new ordering does not establish termination, LP issues a warning that the termination proof will be lost when the next rewrite rule is added to the system.

# The page-mode setting

The page-mode setting controls whether or not LP pauses to enable users to read its output before it is scrolled off the screen.

## Syntax

<set-page-mode-command> ::= set page-mode ( on | off )


## Examples

set page-mode on


## Usage

When page-mode is off (the default), LP does not pause during output. When it is on, LP displays output a screen at a time. After LP displays each screenful of output, it prompts the user with --More-- to type a character indicating what to do next. The options are as follows:
Response  Action
--------  ------
space      display next screenful
return     display next line
digit      display next digit lines
d         display next half screenful
u         display continuously until next user interaction
q         display nothing until next user interaction

Most Unix systems also allow users to control output is by using the ^S and ^Q keys; ^S stops output, and ^Q resumes printing.

# The set prompt command

The prompt setting defines a string that LP uses to prompt users to enter a command.

## Syntax

<set-prompt-command> ::= set prompt <prompt>
<prompt>             ::= <blank-free-string> |  <string> '


## Examples

set prompt [!] '
set prompt >> '


## Usage

By default, <prompt> is LP!: ', which causes LP to issue prompts of the form "LP1: ", "LP2: ", ... To enter a prompt that begins or ends with a space, enclose it within ' marks.

LP replaces the first exclamation mark (!) in <prompt>, if any, by the number of the next command. LP numbers commands entered from the terminal by consecutive integers. It numbers commands obtained during execution of a script (.lp) file by appending a period followed by consecutive integers to the number of the execute command; thus command 5.2.3 is the third command in the script file executed in response to the second command in the script file executed in response to the fifth command typed by the user.

# The proof-methods setting

The proof-methods setting provides a list of default proof methods for LP to use when attempting to prove a formula.

## Syntax

<set-proof-methods-command> ::= set proof-methods <default-proof-method>+[,]

Note: Each <default-proof-method> can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set proof =>, normalization


## Usage

The set proof-methods command provides a list of default proof methods for the current proof context. LP uses the first method in the list that applies to the conjecture. The default list is normalization. Any method (other than contradiction) that does not mention a variable or constant can appear on the list. If the proof-method list is explicit-commands, then LP will await a resume command before beginning the proof.

# The reduction-strategy setting

The reduction-strategy setting controls the order in which LP applies rewrite rules when reducing a term.

## Syntax

<set-reduction-strategy-command> ::= set reduction-strategy
( inside-out | outside-in )

Note: The reduction-strategy can be abbreviated.

## Examples

set reduction in


## Usage

When the reduction-strategy is outside-in (the default), LP attempts to reduce a term by attempting to rewrite the entire term before attempting to reduce any of its subterms. If it is inside-out, LP still applies the hardwired rewrite rules outside-in, but it attempts to apply other rewrite rules to the subterms of a term before it applies them to the entire term.

The reduction-strategy is local to the current proof context.

# The rewriting-limit setting

The rewriting-limit setting sets an upper bound on the number of reductions that LP will perform when normalizing a term with respect to a rewriting system that is not guaranteed to terminate.

## Syntax

<set-rewriting-limit-command> ::= set rewriting-limit <number>


## Examples

set rewriting-limit 50


## Usage

The rewriting-limit setting is local to the current proof context. Its default value is 1000.

If LP exceeds the rewriting limit when normalizing a formula, rewrite rule, or deduction rule, it immunizes that fact. If it exceeds the rewriting limit when attempting to prove a conjecture by normalization or rewriting, the user can continue normalizing the conjecture by typing resume (after raising the rewriting limit, if desired).

# The script-file setting

The script-file setting provides a means of recording user input in a file.

## Syntax

<set-script-file-command> ::= set script-file <file>


## Examples

set script session


## Usage

The set script command causes LP to start recording user input in a file named <file>.lpscr (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lpscr) in LP's current working directory. Any previous contents of this log file are lost. If LP was already scripting to a file, that file is closed before opening the new one is opened. Scripting is ended by the quit or unset script command, which is not recorded in the script file.

LP annotates the script file by commenting out erroneous commands, by substituting the text of the executed file for an execute command, by marking the creation of subgoals and the completion of proofs, and by indenting the script to reveal its proof structure.

Script files can be replayed using the execute command, and they can be edited before being replayed. Although a script file can be replayed directly using the command execute fileName.lpscr, it is generally advisable to rename the script file to fileName.lp and then replay it using the command execute fileName (lest a set script command cause LP to overwrite the command file being executed).

# The statistics-level setting

The statistics-level setting controls the amount of statistics that LP records about its operation.

## Syntax

<set-statistics-level-command> ::= set statistics-level <number>


## Examples

set statistics-level 3


## Usage

The statistics-level setting is an integer between 0 and 3; 2 is the default. LP gathers increasingly many statistics at each level, as follows.
0
Summary statistics only: total running time and memory usage, including the number of garbage collections.
1
Detailed statistics about the time spent, both successfully and unsuccessfully, attempting to orient formulas into rewrite rules, to apply rewrite rules, to apply deduction rules, and to unify terms (in response to the critical-pairs command). Also, the time spent controlling LP's inference mechanisms.
2
The number of successful applications of each rewrite and deduction rule, as well as the number of nontrivial critical pairs involving each rewrite rule.
3
The number of attempted applications of each rewrite rule. Level 3 imposes a considerable computational burden, for example, up to 10% in some applications.

# The trace-level setting

The trace-level setting controls the amount of detail that LP outputs concerning its operation.

## Syntax

<set-trace-level-command> ::= set trace-level <number>


## Examples

set trace-level 3


## Usage

The trace-level setting is an integer between 0 and 8; 1 is the default. LP prints increasing amounts of information at each level, as follows.
0
Only user interactions and the final results of commands.
1
The creation and deletion of facts: how many new facts have been asserted, when facts are deleted because they reduce to true, when application of a deduction rule yields a nontrivial result, when a nontrivial critical pair or instantiation has been added to the system, and when a deduction rule is normalized to a set of formulas.

Also, the size of the system at regular intervals, and when a critical pair computation is abandoned because a theorem has been proved.

2
Ordering actions: when a formula is oriented into a rewrite rule, when a rewrite rule is turned back into a formula because its left side was reduced, when the registry is extended, and when an incompatible formula cannot be oriented.

Also, the size of the system at more frequent intervals.

3
Reduction actions: a formula, deduction rule, or the right side of a rewrite rule has been reduced as a result of adding a new rewrite rule to the system.

Also, the accumulated running time at periodic intervals.

4
Internormalization actions: processing new facts (by normalizing them and applying deduction rules), applying new rewrite rules, orienting formulas into rewrite rules, and computing critical pairs during completion. Also, postponing the orientation of formulas because of their size or because they cannot be oriented using the current registry.
5
Detailed information about critical pairs, deduction rules, and instantiations: instantiations that leave a formula, rewrite rule, or deduction rule unchanged; instantiations and the results of deduction rules that reduce to true, and unreduced critical pair equations along with their normal forms.
6
Successful application of a rewrite rule (debugging information). The output produced at this and higher trace levels is not particularly well coordinated with the output produced by lower trace levels.
7
Attempted application of a rewrite rule (debugging information).
8
Times at which the events reported at levels 6 and 7 occur.

# The write-mode setting

The write-mode setting controls the manner in which the write command outputs identifiers and terms.

## Syntax

<set-write-mode-command> ::= set write-mode <qualification-mode>


## Examples

set write-mode qualified


## Usage

The write-mode setting controls the output of identifiers and terms by the write command in the current proof context.
write-mode         effect
----------         ------
qualified          print qualifications for all subterms, identifiers
unqualified        print no qualifications
unambiguous        print enough qualifications to enable reparsing

The default write-mode is qualified, which guarantees that the output can be reparsed even in the presence of additional overloadings for identifiers. It is often desirable, however, to set the write-mode to unambiguous to shorten and improve the readability of .lp files. If a problem arises in executing a .lp file produced in this fashion (because it is being executed in a context that overloads one of its operators), the problem can be solved by starting a new copy of LP, executing the .lp file, and writing it out again in qualified mode.

# The show command

The show command displays the results of certain operations without affecting the state of LP's logical system.

## Syntax

<show-command> ::= show normal-form <term>
| show unifiers  <term>,  <term>

Note: The first argument of the show command can be abbreviated.

## Examples

show n-f e \in (s \U s)
show unifiers e*x, i(y)*y


## Usage

The show normal-form command displays a normal form of the term with respect to the currently active rewrite rules. If the trace-level is nonzero, LP also displays successive reductions of the term leading to the normal form.

The show unifiers command displays a complete set of most general unifiers of two terms. It displays the unifying substitutions along with the unifications of the terms, and it uses unification algorithms appropriate to the theories associated with the operators in the terms.

# The statistics command

The statistics command displays information about the resources consumed by LP, as well as about the usage of rewrite and deduction rules.

## Syntax

<statistics-command> ::= statistics [ <statistics-option> ]
<statistics-option>  ::= time | usage [ <names> ]

Note: The first word of the <statistics-option> command can be abbreviated.

## Examples

statistics
stat usage nat


## Usage

The statistics command displays cumulative and recent (since the last display) information about LP's operation. The default option is time, which displays information about the time used by LP together with the current size of the heap, the amount of free space available, and the number of garbage collections that have occurred.

The usage option displays information about the use of the rewrite and deduction rules matched by <names>, which defaults to "*". For rewrite rules, the information includes the number of successful applications, the number of attempted applications, and the number of nontrivial critical pairs computed from the rule. For deduction rules, the information includes the number of successful applications. In the display, each name is preceded by (rr) or (dr) to indicate whether the named fact is a rewrite rule or a deduction rule. If two or more facts had the same name, then the display show separate statistics for each incarnation of the name (for example, if two theorems, thm.1 and thm.2, were proved by cases, then two separate rewrite rules would have received the name thmCaseHyp1.1).

# The stop command

The stop command returns control over LP to the user.

## Syntax

<stop-command> ::= stop


## Examples

stop


## Usage

The stop command causes LP to stop
executing commands from files, thereby enabling the user to enter commands again from the terminal.

# The unset command

The unset command returns settings to their default values.

## Syntax

<unset-command> ::= unset ( <setting-name>  | all )

Note: The argument to the unset command can be abbreviated.

## examples

unset script
unset all

The unset command sets the value of <setting-name> to its default value. In particular, unset script stops recording user input in a script file and unset log stops recording the session in a log file. The unset all command sets the value of all settings to their defaults.

• The set command for a description of the legal settings and their default values

# The version command

The version command redisplays the identifying information that LP prints when it starts up.

## Syntax

<version-command> ::= version


## Examples

version


## Usage

The version command causes LP to identify which version of LP is being run and how it was installed. In particular, it reports the maximum size for LP's heap (which limits the size of LP's logical system and proof stack) and the identity of the directory ~lp that LP
searches for help messages and examples.

# The write command

The write command creates a file containing commands that can be executed to recreate LP's current logical system.

## Syntax

<write-command> ::= write <file> [ <names> ]


## Examples

write axioms
write intSet int, set


## Usage

The write command creates a file named <file>.lp (unless <file> contains a period, in which case LP does not supply the suffix .lp) in LP's current working directory. This file can be executed later with the execute command to recreate the named set of facts (or the whole system, if no names are specified). In particular, LP writes declarations for all identifiers in the named set of facts followed by commands to register ordering constraints for the facts and to assert the facts.

Unlike the freeze command, the write command does not save information about the state of uncompleted proofs. But unlike thawing a frozen file, which replaces all of LP's logical system, executing a written file adds information to the current system. Hence it can be used to combine axiomatizations.

Rewrite rules written by the write command are asserted as formulas. The numeric extensions in the names assigned to facts may change when the .lp file is executed; hence facts that are ancestor-immune may behave differently when the system is recreated.

# Hints on using LP

There are a number of hints that beginning users of LP may find helpful. These hints fall into the following categories.

# Hints on preparing input and recording work

Use an editor to prepare a command file containing declarations and assertions. Then execute that file to check that LP can read what you have typed. If you have made any mistakes, edit the command file to fix them.

Put all the declarations you expect to need at the beginning of your command file. This allows LP to check your declarations before beginning any time consuming tasks.

Although proofs are usually constructed interactively, successful proofs should be recorded in cleaned-up command files. Structure your proofs using a sequence of execute commands.

Freeze LP's state often. This makes it easier to try different alternatives when looking for a proof.

Always set scripting and logging on at the start of an LP session. If you realize that you are not recording a session, start logging and then execute a history all command to get LP to print the commands already executed. After executing a step of a proof, enter a comment recording information that may be helpful in cleaning up the LP-produced .lpscr file. If, for example, a critical-pairs command produced no useful critical pairs, record that fact in a comment.

Keep in mind that LP automatically indents and annotates .lpscr files. It is often useful to use an editor to replace parts of human-generated .lp files with material extracted from .lpscr files.

# Hints on formalizing axioms and conjectures

Be careful not to confuse variables and constants. If x is a variable and c is a constant, then e(x) is a stronger assertion than e(c). The first means \A x e(x). In the absence of other assertions involving c, the second only implies \E x e(x). If you don't know whether an identifier is a variable or a constant, type display symbols to find out.

Be careful about the use of free variables in formulas. The formula x = {} => subset(x, y) correctly (albeit awkwardly) expresses the fact that the empty set is a subset of any set. However, its converse, subset(x, y) => x = {}, does not express the fact that any set that is a subset of all sets must be the empty set. That fact is expressed by the equivalent formulas \A x (\A y subset(x, y) => x = {}) and \A x \E y (subset(x, y) => x = {}).

An axiom or conjecture of the form when A yield B has the same logical content as one of the form A => B, but different operational content. Given the axiomization

declare variable x: Bool
declare operators
a: -> Bool
f, g, h: Bool -> Bool
..
assert
when f(x) yield g(x);
g(x) => h(x);
f(a)
..

LP will automatically derive the fact g(a) from f(a) by applying the deduction rule, but it will not derive h(a) from g(a) unless it is instructed to compute critical-pairs.

A multiple-hypothesis deduction rule of the form when A, B yield C has the same logical content as a single-hypothesis rule of the form when A /\ B yield C. They differ operationally in that, if the user asserts or proves two formulas that are matched by A and B, LP will apply the multiple-hypothesis rule but not the single-hypothesis rule.

# Hints on orienting formulas into rewrite rules

If you put some well-selected ordering constraints in the registry, LP will orient formulas more quickly and with fewer surprises. Put the generators for a sort, such as 0 and s for Nat, at the bottom of the registry. Enter defining formulas, such as P(x) = P1(x) /\ P2(x), with the term being defined on the left side of the equality sign.

When a proof fails unexpectedly, look at the rewrite rules to see if any are oriented in surprising directions. If so, there are several potentially useful things to try.

• Set automatic-registry off, instruct LP to order only the offending formula, and choose one of the presented suggestions that order the formula as desired. Then add register commands corresponding to that suggestion to your command file and try running the proof again.

• Alternatively, rerun the proof at a trace-level (e.g., 2) that prints out extensions to the registry; then use a text editor and the .lplog file to locate extensions dealing with operators appearing in the offending rewrite rule. This may suggest a set of register commands that will force the formulas to be ordered as desired.

• Alternatively, rerun the proof with automatic-registry off to find a set of suggestions that will order things the way you want them. Then add register commands with the appropriate suggestions to your command file, and execute it again with automatic-registry on. This last step is important because proof scripts with automatic-registry off are not usually robust.
Occasionally, LP will fail to orient a set of formulas for which a terminating set of rewrite rules does indeed exist. At this point you should consider changing the ordering to use a more powerful ordering strategy (e.g., the dsmpos ordering rather than noeq-dsmpos) or an ordering strategy that makes no attempt to check termination (e.g., left-to-right). It is also worth keeping in mind that although LP will not automatically give operators equal height when using noeq-dsmpos, the register command can be used to do so explicitly.

# Hints on managing proofs

Prove as you would program. Design your proofs. Modularize them. Think about their computational complexity.

Be careful not to let variables disappear too quickly in a proof. Once they are gone, you cannot do a proof by induction. Start your inductions before starting proofs by cases, the => method, the <=> method, or the if method.

Splitting a conjecture into separate conjuncts (using the /\ proof method) early in a proof often leads to repeating work on multiple conjuncts, for example, doing the same case analysis several times.

To keep lemmas and theorems from disappearing (because they normalize to true), make them immune. Typing either of the commands

set immunity on                          prove ... by explicit-commands
prove ... by explicit-commands           make immune conjecture
set immunity off                         resume by ...
resume by ...

when you begin the proof of a conjecture immunizes that conjecture (i.e., causes it to be immune once it becomes a theorem), but nothing else. Similarly, the commands
set immunity ancestor
instantiate ... in ...
set immunity off

help keep instantiations from disappearing when they are special cases of other facts.

When a proof gets stuck:

• Be skeptical. Don't be too sure your conjecture is a theorem.
• If the conjecture is a conditional, conjunction, implication, or logical equivalence, try the corresponding proof method.
• Try computing critical pairs between hypotheses and other rewrite rules, for example, by typing the command critical-pairs *Hyp with *.
• Use a proof by cases to find out what is going on. Case on repeated subterms of the conjecture, on the antecedent of an implication in a rewrite rule, or on the test in an if in a rewrite rule.
• Display the hypotheses (by typing display *Hyp) and check whether any that you expected to see are missing or are not oriented in the way you expected.
• Look for a useful lemma to prove. See if replacing a repeated subterm in a subgoal by a variable results in a more general fact that you know to be true.
In the course of a proof, you may lose track of your place in the subgoal tree. This happens most often if LP has just discharged several subgoals in succession without user intervention and/or it has automatically introduced subgoals. The display, resume, and history commands can be used to help find your place.
• display *Hyp is an easy way to find your place in nested case analyses.
• display proof-status displays the entire proof stack; display conjectures names displays the named conjectures.
• resume shows just the current conjecture (normalized, if the proof-methods setting includes normalization).
• history 20 (or some other number) displays an indented history, including LP-generated box and diamond commands.

Because LP automatically internormalizes facts, you may find that what you consider to be the information content of some user-supplied assertion has been spread out'' over several facts in the current logical system in a way that may not be easy to understand, particularly if the system contains dozens or hundreds of facts. Similarly, you may sometimes notice that LP is reducing (or has reduced) some expression in some way that you don't understand. The command show normal-form E, where E is the expression being mysteriously reduced, or where E is the original form of one side of a formula, will often be enlightening in such cases. Setting the trace-level up to 6 will show which rewrite rules are applied in the normalization.

# Hints on making proofs go faster

When LP seems too slow, use the statistics command to find out which activities are consuming a lot of time. If rewriting (particularly, unsuccessful rewriting) is costly, try one of the following.
• Immunize facts that you know are irreducible. LP will not waste time trying to reduce them.
• Deactivate rewrite rules that are needed only occasionally.
• Make definitions passive and apply them manually.
• Avoid big terms, especially with associative-commutative operators. Seek different axiomatizations or proof strategies if they occur.
If ordering is costly, put ordering constraints in the registry, particularly if you have declared many operators. It may also help to put ordering constraints in the registry prior to a proof by cases to save the cost of having LP rediscover these constraints in each of the cases.

If unification or critical pairing is costly, try to use smaller rule lists as arguments to the critical-pairs command. Also, try to avoid computing critical pairs between rewrite rules that contain subterms such as t1 /\ t2 /\ ... /\ t5, with multiple occurrences of the same associative-commutative operator.

# Unix command-line options

The following options can be specified on the Unix command line when invoking LP:
-c
Enables experimental features for conditional rewriting.

-d fileName
Specifies the location of LP's run-time library, to which ~lp in the lp-path setting refers. The default is /usr/local/lib/LP.

-e
Enables undocumented experimental features in LP.

-max_heap <number>
Sets an upper bound, in megabytes, on the size of LP's heap. This bound should be large enough for LP top handle a proof without running its collector too often (for example, 10 meg on a 32-bit machine and 20-meg on a 64-bit machine). It should be small enough for LP to run without paging (for example, half of the total amount of memory on a single-user machine).

-min_gc <number>
Sets the minimum threshhold, in megabytes, beneath which LP's collector will not run automatically.

-t
Prevents LP from aborting execution of .lp files when an error occurs; useful for testing LP.

# Distribution

To use LP, you need to retrieve two files from ftp.sds.mit.edu:
• LP's run-time library lp-lib.tar.gz
• An executable version appropriate for your hardware:
lp-linux.gz          Intel workstation running Linux
lp-solaris.gz        Sparcstation running SunOS 4.1 or Solaris 5.3
lp-solaris-5_8.gz    Sparcstation running Solaris 5.8

These files are available both over the WWW and by anonymous ftp. To obtain them by anonymous ftp, type the following commands (with platform replaced by one of linux, solaris, or solaris-5_8). Then uncompress the files you obtained, for example, by typing gunzip *.gz.
csh>       ftp ftp.sds.lcs.mit.edu
Name:      anonymous
ftp>       cd pub/Larch/LP
ftp>       bin
ftp>       get lp-lib.tar.gz
ftp>       get lp-platform.gz
ftp>       quit

The source code for LP is also available in the file lp-code.tar.gz. LP is written in CLU, a language developed by Barbara Liskov at MIT in the 1970s to provide direct linquistic support for data abstraction. PCLU, a portable CLU compiler, is available from ftp.lcs.mit.edu:/pub/pclu. See also

# Installation instructions

To install LP, proceed as follows.
• Install the executable version of LP in some directory that occurs on your Unix search path before /usr/bin (which contains a Unix line printer utility also called lp). Remove the platform name as you do this, for example, by typing the command mv lp-linux /usr/local/bin/lp. If necessary, use the chmod command to make this file executable.

• Unpack LP's run-time library by typing tar xf lp-lib.tar. This will create a directory named lprelease'', where release identifies the version of LP supported by the library.

• If possible, make /usr/local/lib/LP a symbolic link to this directory, or copy the contents of this directory to /usr/local/lib/LP. If you cannot do this, alias the command lp to lp -d dir'', where dir is the name of the directory you created.

• If possible, copy the man page for LP, LP/docs/lp.l, to /usr/man/manl. This makes it possible for users to see the man page for LP by typing man l lp.

# Reporting bugs

Please report any bugs that you find in LP so that we can fix them. To do this, complete the following form and mail it to larch@lcs.mit.edu.
Name:     _______________________________       Date: __________________

Version:  ___         [Type lp to find out.]

Hardware: ___ Sparc     ___ DECmips     ___ Alpha
___ Other: __________________________

Operating System and Version: _____________________________

Which of the following symptoms occurred (check all that apply):
__ system level error (OS crashes or hangs, unrelated data is lost)
__ program crashes (segmentation fault, core dump, etc.)
__ program reports a fatal error
__ program hangs
__ program exhibits __ incorrect, __ mysterious, or __ unfriendly behavior
__ program destroys data
__ poor or incorrect error messages
__ incorrect or missing documentation

Problem description (please append a stand-alone command file that we can
execute to reproduce the bug):


# News

## January 28, 1999

An updated release, Version 3.1b, of LP is now available. This release fixes some bugs in Version 3.1a and adds some new features.

## April 27, 1995

An updated release, Version 3.1a, of LP is now available. This release fixes some bugs in Version 3.1.

## December 30, 1994

A major new release, Version 3.1, of LP is now available. For more information, see

# New features in Release 3.1

The following features have been added to LP since Release 2.4.
• Support for full first-order logic, not just the universal-existential subset supported by Release 2.4. See quantifiers.

• A simple sort system for describing polymorphic abstractions.

• New inference mechanisms
• Proofs by well founded induction.
• Proofs of conjectures of the form t1 <=> t2, with t1 => t2 and t2 => t1 as subgoals.
• Proofs that use deduction rules for backward inference. See apply.

• Richer syntactic conventions, such as x[n] and n!, for operators and terms.

• Additional user amenities, for example, enhanced facilities for naming sets of statements.

• New rewrite rule for the boolean operators, namely, ~p <=> ~q -> p <=> q.
The following features behave differently in Release 3.1 than they did in Release 2.4.
• Some settings (e.g., the default name prefix) are now local to proof contexts.

• Names such as thmCaseHyp1.1 are reused within non-overlapping proof contexts.

• LP now attempts to preserve the order of operands in formulas such as init => c = 1, so that preference is given to ordering equalities in the direction the user may have intended when these formulas normalize to equations.

# Changes required in old proof scripts

Users must observe the following new syntactic conventions when using Release 3.1 instead of Release 2.4.
• Case is significant now in identifiers (but not in names).
Old: declare sort Nat               New: declare sort Nat
declare operator 0: -> nat          declare operator 0: -> Nat

• There are new symbols for the boolean operators.
Old: not, &, |                      New: ~, /\, \/

(Fewer parentheses are needed now because the boolean operators /\ and \/ bind more tightly than =>, which binds more tightly than <=>.)

• There is now a single equality operator; i.e., double equals'' is gone.
Old: x + 0 == x                     New: x + 0 = x
init(x) == x = 0                    init(x) <=> x = 0
init(x) == x = 0                    init(x) = (x = 0)

• Declarations for infix operators need to be decorated with markers. (Now users can also declare prefix and postfix operators.)
Old: declare op +: N, N -> N        New: declare op __+__: N, N -> N

• Assertions must be separated by semicolons. (Now users can mix arbitrary assertions in the same assert command.)
Old: assert ac +                    New: assert
assert                                ac +;
1 = s(0)                            1 = s(0);
x + 0 = x                           x + 0 = x
..                                  ..

• Induction rules and partitioned-by's must begin with the keyword sort.
Old: assert Nat generated by 0, s   New: assert sort Nat generated by 0, s
assert Set parititioned by /in      assert sort Set partitioned by \in

• Some qualifications added to disambiguate terms must be rewritten.
Old: assert a.b:S = 2               New: assert a.(b:S) = 2
assert a:S[n]                       assert (a:S)[n]

• Cases must be separated by commas.
Old: resume by case a b not(a | b)  New: resume by case a, b, ~(a \/ b)

• Deduction rule hypotheses and conclusions must be separated by commas.
Old: when h1 h2 yield c1 c2         New: when h1, h2 yield c1, c2

• Deduction rules now use the new notation for universal quantifiers.
Old: when forall x p(x) q(x)        New: when \A x p(x), \A x q(x) yield c
yield c

• Commas and/or slashes are used now in name lists for the operations of union and intersection.
Old: display d-r nat set            New: display d-r / (nat, set)

• The annotations for box checking have been changed. (It is best to let LP regenerate them in a script file.)
Old: prove P(x) by case x = 0       New: prove P(x) by case x = 0
<> 2 subgoals for proof              <> case xc = 0
... commands ...                   ... commands ...
[] case 0 = xc                     [] case xc = 0
... commands ...                   <> case ~(xc = 0)
[] case not(0 = xc)                ... commands ...
[] conjecture                        [] case ~(xc = 0)
[] conjecture

Users may have to make additional changes in their scripts because LP reacts differently to them in the following ways.
• LP may orient some equations (e.g., case hypotheses) in the opposite direction. Many times, the new direction will be the one the user desired. But the new direction may cause LP to compute different critical pairs.
• LP flattens terms differently, because new spellings for (the boolean) operators collate differently. This may result in different reduction sequences during normalization, which may cause some proofs to succeed faster, some to succeed slower, and some to fail entirely.
• LP may generate different variable identifiers, e.g., when translating partitioned by.
• LP formulates the proof obligation for a deduction rule as an implication. This enables users to prove deduction rules using induction. However, box-checking now supplies/requires different annotations.

# Accessible quantifiers

The fix and instantiate commands, together with the generalization and specialization proof methods, enable users to eliminate quantifiers from facts and conjectures. For a quantifier to be eliminable, it must be accessible, that is, it must not be in the scope of another (explicit or implicit) quantifier over the same variable.

# Confluence

A set of rewrite rules is called confluent (or Church-Rosser) if, whenever a term t can be rewritten in two ways to terms u and v, there is another term w such that u and v both rewrite to w. A set of rewrite rules is confluent if it is both terminating and locally confluent, i.e., if whenever a term t can be rewritten two ways, each in a single step, to terms u and v, there is another term w such that u and v both rewrite to w (Newman, 1942).

# Conjectures

A conjecture is a formula, deduction rule, induction rule, or operator theory that has been entered by a prove command, but whose proof is not yet complete. See also subgoal.

# Conservative extension

One system is a conservative extension of another if any consequence of that system is also a consequence of the other or contains a function symbol that does not occur in the other. Thus, conservative extensions can be used to define properties of new symbols, but do not introduce inconsistencies or additional properties of existing symbols.

# Convergence

A set of rewrite rules is called convergent if all terms can be rewritten to a terminal form in a finite number of steps, and all terms have a unique normal form.

# Equational term rewriting

Equational term-rewriting differs from conventional term-rewriting in that matching, unification, and completion are performed module a set E of equations.

A set E of equations defines an equational theory, which is the set of equations that can be derived from E by substituting equals for equals. More generally, a set of equations and rewrite rules defines an equational theory, which is that obtained by considering the rewrite rules as equations. A major purpose of the Knuth-Bendix completion procedure is to provide a decision procedure (reduction to normal form) for the question of whether equations are in the equational theory of a given system of equations and rewrite rules.

# Flattening

LP facilitates matching terms involving associative-commutative (ac) operators by using a special flattened representation for those terms.

When an argument of an ac operator has that operator as its principal operator, LP replaces it by its arguments. For example, when + is ac, (a + b) + (c + d) flattens to a + b + c + d.

Furthermore, when a flattened term involving an ac operator has more than two arguments, LP sorts the arguments lexicographically; for example, when + is ac, (c + b) + a flattens to a + b + c.

Two-argument terms such as q <=> p, where <=> is the hardwired ac operator for boolean equivalence, are not flattened to p <=> q. This enables LP to orient them into rewrite rules in the direction the user (may have) intended.

# Matching

A term t1 is said to match a term t2 if it can be transformed into t2 by some substitution of terms for its variables. When operators with ac or commutative operator theories occur in t1 and t2, or when t1 and t2 contain quantifiers, t1 matches t2 in LP if there is a substitution that transforms t1 into a term equivalent to t2 modulo these theories and changes of bound variables.

# Normalization

A term is said to be normalized, or in normal form, with respect to a set of rewrite rules if none of those rules can be applied to the term. The command show normal-form displays the normal form of a term with respect to the active rewrite rules in LP's logical system. See also the normalize command.

If the rewriting system is not guaranteed to terminate (e.g., if the user oriented an equation into a rewrite rule manually), the normal form computation may not terminate. When the rewriting system is not known to terminate, LP stops the rewriting process and issues a warning after a very large number of rewrites during a normal form computation. See the rewriting-limit setting.

If the rewriting system is not confluent, a term may have more than one normal form.

LP uses normalization as a method of forward and backward inference.

# Reduction

Terms can be reduced or rewritten by the application of a rewrite rule, as follows. First, the left side of the rewrite rule is matched against the term or one of its subterms. (Matching is the process of finding a substitution for the variables of a term that makes it equivalent to another term.) If matching is successful, the resulting substitution is applied to the right side of the rewrite rule and the matched term is replaced with this new term.

# Skolem constants and functions

A Skolem constant is a new constant that is substituted for a variable when eliminating an existential quantifier from a fact or a universal quantifier from a conjecture. For example, the fact \A x (f(x) = c) can be obtained by eliminating the existential quantifier from \E y \A x (f(x) = y) and replacing y by the Skolem constant c. As long as c does not appear in any other fact or in the current conjecture, this Skolemization represents a conservative extension of LP's logical system.

For another example, the conjecture \A x (f(x) = 0) can be proved from the subgoal f(c) = 0, where c is a Skolem constant. As long as c is new, the proof is sound.

When an existential quantifier is being eliminated from a fact that contains free variables, or when the existential quantifier occurs in the scope of a universal quantifier, the quantified variable must be replaced by a term involving a Skolem function applied to the free and universally quantified variables. For example, the fact \A x (x < bigger(x)) can be obtained by eliminating the existential quantifier from \A x \E y (x < y) and replacing y by bigger(x). See the fix command and the generalization proof method.

# Substitutions

A substitution is a mapping from variables to terms (of the appropriate sorts). A substitution can be applied to a term as well as to a variable; its effect is to replace (simultaneously) each variable in the term by the substitution applied to that variable. More precisely, if sigma is a substitution defined on variables, then sigma extends to terms by setting
sigma(f(t1, ..., tn)) = f(sigma(t1), ..., sigma(tn))
`
A substitution sigma is an instance of a substitution sigma1 if there is a substitution sigma2 such that sigma(t) = sigma2(sigma1(t)).

# Subgoals

A subgoal is a conjecture introduced by a method of backward inference in an attempt to prove another conjecture. Often additional hypotheses may be used in the proof of the subgoal.

# Termination

A set of rewrite rules is called terminating if each term can be reduced only a finite number of times. Generally some well-founded ordering on terms is used to establish the termination of a rewriting system.

# Unification

Two terms are unifiable if they have a common instance, i.e., if there is a substitution (called a unifier of the terms) that transforms them both into the same term. When two terms contain operators with ac or commutative operator theories, or when they contain quantifiers, they are unifiable if there is a substitution that transforms them into terms that are equivalent modulo these theories and changes of bound variables.

A set of unifiers for two terms is complete if every unifier of the two terms is a substitution instance of some unifier in the set. A unifier of two terms is a most general unifier if, whenever it is (equivalent to) a substitution instance of another unifier, that other unifier is also (equivalent to) a substitution instance of it. For any two unifiable terms containing ac and/or commutative operators, there is a finite set of most general unifiers that is complete.